Floristics and environmental factors determining the geographic distribution of epiphytic bromeliads in the Brazilian Atlantic Rain Forest

We investigated how epiphytic species and subfamilies of Bromeliaceae change along the extent of the Atlantic Rain Forest, to answer the questions: (i) How do the epiphytic genera and subfamilies of Bromeliaceae change along the domain? (ii) How similar are the different regions of the Atlantic Rain Forest in relation to the epiphytic species of bromeliads? (iii) Which environmental variables are the most important factors in determining species composition along the domain? We found 114 species of Bromelioideae and 73 of Tillandsioideae. The predominance of Bromelioideae was unexpected, because they are not wind-dispersed as would be expected for most epiphytes. The smaller number of species of Tillandsioideae, and the high frequency of species of Vriesea with limited geographic distributions indicated that epiphytes with rather limited geographic distributions predominate in this domain. Species similarity was divided into one block of south–southeastern localities, and a second block of northeastern–southeastern localities. These results suggest that the distribution of epiphytic bromeliad species resembles that of the phorophyte trees, more than a previous pattern suggested for all epiphytes in the domain. Latitude, temperature and altitude were important factors affecting the species composition along the domain. In general, our results differ from those of other studies in Latin America, and we suggest that historical and evolutionary events generated these differences.     

Diversity and ecology of saxicolous vegetation mats on inselbergs in the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest

Inselbergs occur as mostly dome-shaped rock outcrops in all climatic and vegetational zones of the tropics. Consisting of Precambrian granites and gneisses, they form ancient and stable landscape elements. Due to harsh edaphic and microclimatic conditions, the vegetation of inselbergs differs markedly from those of the surroundings. Monocotyledonous mats form one of the most characteristic communities of this ecosystem. The floristic composition of this community was studied on six inselbergs located in the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest. Dominating are Bromeliaceae ( Alcantarea , Encholirium ), Velloziaceae ( Vellozia ), Cactaceae ( Coleocephalocereus ) and the Cyperaceae Trilepis . The alpha diversity of the mats was relatively uniform among the six outcrops. However, beta diversity varied considerably between the different sites. Beta diversity was highest at the most speciose locality indicating a high degree of stochasticity in colonization. In contrast to the low diversity mats on West African inselbergs, the Brazilian rock outcrops bear a floristically more diverse mat community rich in endemics. Thus the edaphically controlled inselberg vegetation reflects the outstanding diversity of the Mata Atlaântica. Possibly the high species richness of mats on East Brazilian inselbergs is a consequence of a large species-pool. The processes that regulate regional and local diversity in the Mata Atlaântica are not fully clear. It is assumed that historical (i.e. long-term stability) and biotic (i.e. evolutionary interchange of taxa between canopies and rock outcrops followed by differentiation of local populations) conditions have promoted high rates of speciation and their coexistence in isolated habitats. A danger to the unique vegetation of East Brazilian inselbergs is the establishment of invasive weeds.     

Lack of adequate taxonomic knowledge may hinder endemic mammal conservation in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest

The Atlantic Forest is one of the most diverse and threatened ecosystems of the world, being thus classified as one of the most important biodiversity hotspots. However, habitat loss, overexploitation, alien species, disease and pollution are not the only threats faced by native fauna and flora. The lack of adequate taxonomic knowledge hinders conservation and management efforts of endemic species. This is true even for mammals, which is the most charismatic group of animals and traditionally receive a good deal of attention from scientists and the public in general. A few examples show how this gap in local fauna information can be demise for species conservation, even misguiding management strategies: molecular data reveal a hidden marsupial diversity; the lack of taxonomic studies at the species level seriously threatens rodent conservation; and the taxonomic rearrangement of the genusBrachyteles revealed a new species and had a great impact on management strategies. New species are discovered, described and taxonomically rearranged at an astounding rate. We can only be successful in biodiversity conservation if we have at least a minimum level of knowledge about what we are trying to preserve. That is true both for researchers and for the general public. Recent taxonomic revisions may represent the turning point in Neotropical fauna knowledge, which, coupled with a greater awareness of local people about the rich biodiversity that dot their backyards, can represent a better conservation prospect for the endemics of the Atlantic Forest.     

Biodiversity Conservation and Human Well-being: Challenges for the Populations and Protected Areas of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest

The Atlantic Forest (AF) of Brazil is a highly endangered natural ecosystem whose rural human inhabitant’s socioeconomic and health situation also is generally precarious. Using a transdisciplinary and participatory methodology, the different characteristics of rural populations living near three protected areas in Santa Teresa—ES, Brazil, were investigated in a pilot project examining the human groups and the biodiversity of the region. This article presents a general overview of the project, its bioanthropological methodology, socioeconomic, demographic, environmental perception, and sanitary findings, and their possible implications for the three protected areas. A total of 178 families, living in 119 properties participated in the research. The water and sanitation infrastructure of these properties is often poor, over 85% of the cultivated land is used for products which make heavy use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers, education levels are low, and two-thirds of the inhabitants do not perceive a value in the protected areas. Hunting and extraction of forest products in the areas is common and many local animal species are highly endangered. Considering that the AF protected areas are under intense anthropogenic pressure, it is imperative to study their surrounding populations in order to propose initiatives that can contribute simultaneously to environmental conservation and the improvement of their quality of life. The project is based on the participation of the local population with the aim of contributing to a better integration of the communities with the protected areas.     

Implementing artificial insemination as an effective tool for ex situ conservation of endangered avian species

Approximately 503 of the known species of birds are classified as ‘endangered’ or ‘critical’. Captive propagation programs have proven useful in maintaining genetic diversity and restoring wild populations of certain species, including the Peregrine falcon, California condor and Whooping crane. Artificial insemination (AI) has the potential of solving problems inherent to reproductive management of small, closed populations of endangered birds, including dealing with demographic instability, physical and behavioral disabilities, sexual incompatibility, lack of synchrony, and need to maintain gene diversity. In this review, we address the necessary methods and factors that allow AI to be applied effectively to manage rare bird populations. It is clear that semen availability and quality are the greatest limiting factors to implementing consistently successful AI for birds. Behavioral sensitivity to animal handling and the ability to minimize stress in individual birds also are keys to success. Multiple, deep vaginal inseminations can improve fertility, particularly when semen quality is marginal. Laparoscopic methods of semen transfer also have produced fertile eggs. All of these practices leading to successful AI remain dependent on having adequate basic knowledge on female reproductive status, copulatory behavior, endocrine profiles and duration of fertility, especially as related to oviposition. The overall greatest challenge and highest priority is defining these normative traits, which are highly species-specific.     

Diversity distribution and floristic differentiation of the coastal lowland vegetation: implications for the conservation of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest

Floristic differentiation and vegetation definition is an important step to recognize biome distribution and for biodiversity conservation. Here, we aim to verify if the distribution of the costal lowland vegetation in Brazilian littoral is congruent with climatic gradient and the previous vegetation definitions. Additionally we discussed the importance of terms for the Atlantic Forest conservation. Our study was based on floristic and geo-climatic data from 58 published surveys. We generate a checklist of 1088 woody species and verified species distribution according to environmental gradient using a Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA). We compared DCA??s groups with the a priori vegetation definition and generate an a posteriori classification using TWINSPAN. DCA and TWINSPAN resulted in groups determined mainly by rainfall (r = ?0.65) and soil sandiness (r = ?0.71). Those groups were not congruent with both the previous vegetation definitions. The coastal lowland vegetation comprises two distinctive floristic groups representing forests and scrubs that occur in wetter climates (Ombrophilous lowland forests) in the Brazilian states of Santa Catarina, Paraná and São Paulo and in drier climates of Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro (Restinga-Northern group) and Rio Grande do Sul (Restinga-Southern group) states. The floristic and historical relationships between Ombrophylous lowland forests and Restingas suggest that conservation initiatives should be more conservative and treat collectively all coastal lowland vegetation as a biodiversity hotspot.     

Spatial distribution of an undergrowth palm in fragments of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest

The occurrence of disturbed sectors may be as important as microscaleedge effects in tropical forests fragments. We considered the spatialdistribution dynamics of life stages (youngs, immatures, and adults) of theacaulescent, endemic palm Attalea humilis Mart. ex.Spreng.in fire-prone fragments of the Brazilian Atlantic forest to investigatepopulation responses to fragment size and fire occurrence. From 1996 to 1999,werecorded the number of individuals in different life stages in adjacent10×10-m plots in two perpendicular transects across each of threefragments of different sizes (1.6, 6.4, and 9.9 ha) in the ReservaNacional de Poço das Antas, Southeastern Brazil. A fire burnt thefragments studied in 1997. Application of Morisita's Index showed clumping atmost scales, with a marked reduction in clumping degree from youngs to adults,apattern not influenced by fragment size. After fire, clumping degree increasedtemporarily among the youngs. No association between life stages was detectedusing presence/absence data. Palm density concentrated in the most disturbedtransect arms, a pattern very little affected by fragment size or fire. Noconsistent relationship between palm density and distance from fragment edgewasdetected for any stage, fragment, or year. We hypothesize that short-distanceseed dispersal by scatterhoarding rodents results in discrete, low-densityclumps of youngs dissociated from reproductive plants. The spatial pattern oflater stages is probably conditioned by the distribution of canopy gaps in thelargest, more closed fragment. In the other fragments, the presence of largedisturbed sectors promotes the formation of large, continuous stands of palms.This pattern would be reinforced by fire, which is known to be recurrent onalready disturbed sites. For the species studied, large-scale variations in theforest structure (degraded vs. preserved fragment sectors) seems to be moreimportant than microscale edge effects.     

In vitro conservation of Cedrela fissilis Vellozo (Meliaceae),a native tree of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest

Two in vitro conservation methods have beendeveloped for the ex situ conservation of germplasm fromCedrela fissilis, an economically important tree of theBrazilian Atlantic Forest. The first method involves the medium-term storage, at 25°C, of artificial seeds comprising alginate encapsulatedvegetative propagules (shoot tips, cotyledonary and epicotyl nodal segments).Maximum post-storage (3 months) viabilities of 96–100% wereachieved for encapsulated shoot tips and cotyledonary nodal segments stored onwater-solidified agar (at 0.4–0.7% w/v). Encapsulated shoot tips storedfor 6 months on 0.4% (w/v) agar showed the highest survival rates(44%). Seeds of C. fissilis were successfully cryopreserved(100%) after direct immersion in liquid nitrogen. Ex situstorage procedures are now available for the medium- to long-term conservationof C. fissilis. These approaches offer new opportunitiesfor the conservation, sustainable management and utilization of this valuablefast growing timber tree.     

Genetic variation in remnant populations of Dalbergia nigra (Papilionoideae), an endangered tree from the Brazilian Atlantic Forest

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Dalbergia nigra, known as Brazilian rosewood, is an endangered tree species restricted to the Brazilian Atlantic Forest and has been intensively logged for five centuries due to its high-quality wood. The objective of the present study was to assess the genetic variation and structure in adults and saplings of the species from a large reserve of the Atlantic Forest, the Rio Doce State Park, and from two small surrounding fragments, one better preserved and another with a high degree of anthropogenic disturbance. METHODS: Analyses of genetic variation and structure were conducted by studying allozyme markers. Seven putative enzymatic loci were resolved, five of them being polymorphic. KEY RESULTS: The mean numbers of alleles per locus (A) were 1.93 and 1.73, while the percentages of polymorphic loci (P) were 93 and 73 % for adults and saplings, respectively. Saplings from the fragment with high anthropogenic disturbance exhibited the lowest values of A and P. The fragment that constitutes a conservation area exhibited genetic variation similar to the population from the large reserve. The observed (H(o)) and expected (H(e)) heterozygosities were not significantly different among the three populations. Only sapling populations showed F(ST) values (divergence among populations) significantly different from zero over all studied loci. The fragment with high anthropogenic disturbance exhibited considerable genetic divergence in relation to the above-cited populations. CONCLUSIONS: The evaluated populations displayed mean levels of genetic variation intermediate to those expected for narrow and widespread species. The results suggest that fragments with similar area and geographical distance from a large protected reserve can exhibit different levels of genetic variation, depending on the degree of anthropogenic disturbance. The considerable genetic variation in the protected fragment points to the importance of adequate conservation of small fragments for the preservation of genetic variation in D. nigra.     

Physiological characteristics underpinning successful cryopreservation of endemic and endangered species of Bromeliaceae from the Brazilian Atlantic Forest

The germination requirements and the basis of the optimal water content before and after cryopreservation were studied for ten endangered Brazilian species of Bromeliaceae. Constant and alternating temperature regimes were used to determine the best conditions for seed germination. The relationship between seed water content and relative humidity was evaluated using water sorption isotherms at 15 °C. Seeds were cryostored at four water contents (3, 5, 7 and 9%) and three storage periods (0, 180 and 365 days), and loss in viability and vigour were estimated. Fresh seeds of all species showed maximum germination in < 30 days at temperatures between 20 and 30 °C, indicating the absence of a physical/morphological dormancy. A sigmoidal relationship between seed water content and relative humidity was observed with no apparent differences in sorption characteristics among the species. The optimum water content for cryopreservation of most of these species was c. 7%. Ultra‐drying (3% seed water content) had a detrimental effect on seed viability and vigour. Our experiments suggested orthodox storage behaviour for all species of Bromeliaceae examined as they are able to survive desiccation and freezing. This study has shown the feasibility of ex situ conservation in seed cryobanks of endangered bromeliads from the Brazilian Atlantic Forest to support future reintroduction of these species in nature. © 2014 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, 176 , 567–576.     

Tissue culture for the conservation and mass propagation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Vriesea reitzii</Emphasis> Leme and Costa,a bromeliad threatened of extinction from the Brazilian Atlantic Forest

The Brazilian Atlantic Forest biome is considered a hotspot of biodiversity. It is estimated that today the remaining primary vegetation covers only 7.5% of its original area. Bromeliad species are important components of this biome. Some of these species are endemic, like the highly endangered Vriesea reitzii. Tissue culture techniques have been often employed for the mass propagation and conservation of threatened bromeliad species. In the present work we describe a procedure for the micropropagation and in vitro conservation of V. reitzii. Seedling explants were cultured on MS and LPm liquid media supplemented with BA, NAA and GA₃. The induction and multiplication of shoots were observed in the MS medium supplemented with NAA (2 μM) and BA (4 μM). The best conditions for maintenance and conservation of shoots were half-strength or MS medium. Shoot elongation was observed in MS medium supplemented with GA₃ (10 μM). MS medium supplemented with NAA (1 μM) and BA (2 μM) enabled an efficient proliferation system. The acclimatization of shoots longer than 2 cm resulted in 100% survival rate.     

Development of polymorphic microsatellite markers for Dalbergia nigra (Papilionoideae), an endangered tree from the Brazilian Atlantic Forest

Dalbergia nigra is an endangered tree restricted to the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. Ten polymorphic microsatellite loci were isolated and characterized in 47 trees from two populations. The total number of alleles per locus ranged from three to 12 alleles. The levels of observed and expected heterozygosities ranged from 0.304 to 0.740 and from 0.278 to 0.872, respectively. Significant deviations from Hardy-Weinberg were detected for only three loci in each population. No pair of loci exhibited significant linkage disequilibrium. These microsatellites provide an efficient tool to investigate genetic structure in forest remnants with the purpose of conservation of this species.     

Population Dynamics, Resource Use, and Conservation Needs of the Delhi Sands Flower-loving Fly (Rhaphiomidas Terminatus Abdominalis Cazier) (Diptera: Mydidae), an Endangered Species

The Delhi Sands Flower-loving Fly (Rhaphiomidas terminatus abdominalis Cazier), the only Dipteran listed as endangered in the United States, is a large, nectar-feeding pollinator fly, found only in remnants of a sand dune ecosystem in southern California. A five-year observational study was conducted in a 3.7ha preserve. Legal and biological constraints limit accuracy of population data because marking individuals was not possible. The population on the preserve appeared to be stable over the period of observation. Little variation in number of flies observed from year to year was found. Spatial distribution of fly observations differed for each fly generation, but reasons for this are not clear. Distribution of male and female flies differed from each other most of the time. Understanding aspects of the fly's ecology and behavior and the ecosystem dynamics is necessary to effectively plan for conservation and recovery of the species. Preserves must provide all of the elements needed for continued survival of the species through maintenance of its dynamic habitat.     

Patterns of plant diversity in Africa south of the Sahara and their implications for conservation management

Plant species richness and range-size rarity in Africa south of the Sahara is concentrated in centres of plant diversity and endemism. Distribution patterns of plants mapped in the Distributiones Plantarum Africanum series and selected taxonomic monographs are analysed using the computer programme WORLDMAP. The plants are divided into four groups: herbaceous geophytes, mesophytic herbs, light-demanding shrubs and woody genera. Each group has peaks of species richness and range-size rarity at locations different to the other groups. Herbaceous geophytes and mesophytic herbs have their peaks of species richness and range-size rarity in the same location, the western Cape for geophytes and the Crystal Mountain for mesophytic herbs, whereas light-demanding shrubs and woody genera have peaks in different places. The results are discussed in relation to possible factors determining species richness and endemism and their likely conservation significance.     

Phylogeography of the endangered rosewood Dalbergia nigra (Fabaceae): insights into the evolutionary history and conservation of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest

The Brazilian rosewood (Dalbergia nigra) is an endangered tree endemic to the central Brazilian Atlantic Forest, one of the world''s most threatened biomes. The population diversity, phylogeographic structure and demographic history of this species were investigated using the variation in the chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) sequences of 185 individuals from 19 populations along the geographical range of the species. Fifteen haplotypes were detected in the analysis of 1297 bp from two non-coding sequences, trnV-trnM and trnL. We identified a strong genetic structure (F_ST=0.62, P<0.0001), with a latitudinal separation into three phylogeographic groups. The two northernmost groups showed evidence of having maintained historically larger populations than the southernmost group. Estimates of divergence times between these groups pointed to vicariance events in the Middle Pleistocene (ca. 350 000–780 000 years ago). The recurrence of past climatic changes in the central part of the Atlantic forest, with cycles of forest expansion and contraction, may have led to repeated vicariance events, resulting in the genetic differentiation of these groups. Based on comparisons among the populations of large reserves and small, disturbed fragments of the same phylogeographic group, we also found evidence of recent anthropogenic effects on genetic diversity. The results were also analysed with the aim of contributing to the conservation of D. nigra. We suggest that the three phylogeographic groups could be considered as three distinct management units. Based on the genetic diversity and uniqueness of the populations, we also indicate priority areas for conservation.     

Spatial distribution and habitats of useful plants: an initial assessment for conservation on an indigenous territory, Panama

In order to examine the spatial distribution of forest resources on local territories and to understand the factors controlling such distributions, we studied the spatial patterns of a group of 23 useful plant species on the territory of a Kuna community in the province of Darien, Panama. A stratified random sampling scheme was used to survey the distribution and abundance of the species across a 3500 ha area around the village. Data on the physical environment as well as the geographic coordinates of the sample plots were also obtained. A series of canonical analyses was conducted to evaluate the species–environment relationships and to identify spatial structures in the species distributions left unexplained by the environmental variables. Four distinct distribution patterns were identified among the species; these were most strongly explained by land-use, the degree of canopy closure and topography. Significant spatial structures, independent of the measured environmental variables, were related to anthropogenic pressure and an edaphic gradient, and the habitat associations of the individual species were described. The results obtained from this case study suggest that land-use dynamics may play a predominant role in structuring inhabited landscapes, and that diversity in distribution patterns and habitat associations will require a combination of spatially explicit management strategies to ensure the local resource base.     

A new method for calculating Risk Tolerance in the assessment of threatened flora

This paper reports on a proposed method for evaluating threat categories for regional flora, based mainly on phytogeographical data. The method involves the creation of current distribution maps, analysis of threat factors and use of the RAMAS Red List software to facilitate rapid and objective classification of taxa in accordance with 2001 IUCN criteria. In order to ensure a more objective approach by the assessor and reduce the range of uncertainty, an index was created for calculating Risk Tolerance (RT) that enabled adjustment of the results obtained and thus supplemented the software used. For trial purposes, the proposed model was applied to Spanish gypsophilous flora currently protected under Spanish regional legislation. When classified using the new model, the taxa in question were placed in very different categories, ranging from least concern (LC) to endangered (EN), indicating the need to redefine both their current legal status and recommended management measures. Use of this method will enable scientists to optimise available information on the geographical distribution of endangered taxa, and help governments both to optimise their financial investment in conservation and to define their priorities. The authors endorse the use of IUCN categories in legal protection texts, and advocate as essential a greater degree of coordination between scientists and governments.     

Identification of priority areas for conservation in an arid zone: application of parsimony analysis of endemicity in the vascular flora of the Antofagasta region, northern Chile

Endemic taxa are those restricted to a specific area, and could bedefined as the exclusive biodiversity of a region. An area of endemismcontains taxa found nowhere else and could be catalogued as irreplaceable and of highpriority for conservation. proposed the parsimony analysis of endemicity (PAE) as a tool to detect areas ofendemism. PAE, a method of historical biogeography, is analogous to cladisticmethods used in phylogenetics analysis, and unites areas (taxa in cladistics)based on their shared species (characters in cladistics) according to the mostparsimonious solution. In this paper we determined with PAE, prioritary areasfor conservation on the basis of concentrations of endemic species in the aridregion of Antofagasta, northern Chile, and compared the results with theirrepresentation in the current Chilean National Parks and Reserves System. Wefound two areas suggested as priorities, one located in the north Andean zone ofthe region, and another at the coast. The area with the higher biodiversity andconcentration of endemics was that located at the coast. However, coastalecosystems are currently under-represented in the Chilean National Parks andReserves System. The establishment of a new protected area in the coastal zoneof the region of Antofagasta is currently under consideration, coinciding withthe area suggested with PAE as priority. This new area would not only allowconserving species with evident problems of conservation, but also preserving anarea where higher levels of endemism exist.