Extracellular Norepinephrine Clearance by the Norepinephrine Transporter Is Required for Skeletal Homeostasis

Changes in bone remodeling induced by pharmacological and genetic manipulation of β-adrenergic receptor (βAR) signaling in osteoblasts support a role of sympathetic nerves in the regulation of bone remodeling. However, the contribution of endogenous sympathetic outflow and nerve-derived norepinephrine (NE) to bone remodeling under pathophysiological conditions remains unclear. We show here that differentiated osteoblasts, like neurons, express the norepinephrine transporter (NET), exhibit specific NE uptake activity via NET and can catabolize, but not generate, NE. Pharmacological blockade of NE transport by reboxetine induced bone loss in WT mice. Similarly, lack of NE reuptake in norepinephrine transporter (Net)-deficient mice led to reduced bone formation and increased bone resorption, resulting in suboptimal peak bone mass and mechanical properties associated with low sympathetic outflow and high plasma NE levels. Last, daily sympathetic activation induced by mild chronic stress was unable to induce bone loss, unless NET activity was blocked. These findings indicate that the control of endogenous NE release and reuptake by presynaptic neurons and osteoblasts is an important component of the complex homeostatic machinery by which the sympathetic nervous system controls bone remodeling. These findings also suggest that drugs antagonizing NET activity, used for the treatment of hyperactivity disorders, may have deleterious effects on bone accrual.     

Local Influence of Endogenous Norepinephrine on Extracellular Dopamine in Rat Medial Prefrontal Cortex

Abstract: Noradrenergic and dopaminergic projections converge in the medial prefrontal cortex and there is evidence of an interaction between dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE) terminals in this region. We have examined the influence of drugs known to alter extracellular NE on extracellular NE and DA in medial prefrontal cortex using in vivo microdialysis. Local application of the NE uptake inhibitor desipramine (1.0 µM) delivered through a microdialysis probe increased extracellular DA (+149%) as well as NE (+201%) in medial prefrontal cortex. Furthermore, desipramine potentiated the tail shock-induced increase in both extracellular DA (stress alone, +64%; stress + desipramine, +584%) and NE (stress alone, +55%; stress + desipramine, +443%). In contrast, local application of desipramine did not affect extracellular DA in striatum, indicating that this drug does not influence DA efflux directly. Local application of the α₂-adrenoceptor antagonist idazoxan (0.1 or 5.0 mM) increased extracellular NE and DA in medial prefrontal cortex. Conversely, the α₂-adrenoceptor agonist clonidine (0.2 mg/kg; i.p.) decreased extracellular NE and DA in medial prefrontal cortex. These results support the hypothesis that NE terminals in medial prefrontal cortex regulate extracellular DA in this region. This regulation may be achieved by mechanisms involving an action of NE on receptors that regulate DA release (heteroreceptor regulation) and/or transport of DA into noradrenergic terminals (heterotransporter regulation).     

Effects of Methylphenidate on Extracellular Dopamine, Serotonin, and Norepinephrine: Comparison with Amphetamine

Abstract: Methylphenidate promotes a dose-dependent behavioral profile that is very comparable to that of amphetamine. Amphetamine increases extracellular norepinephrine and serotonin, in addition to its effects on dopamine, and these latter effects may play a role in the behavioral effects of amphetamine-like stimulants. To examine further the relative roles of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin in the behavioral response to amphetamine-like stimulants, we assessed extracellular dopamine and serotonin in caudate putamen and norepinephrine in hippocampus in response to various doses of methylphenidate (10, 20, and 30 mg/kg) that produce stereotyped behaviors, and compared the results with those of a dose of amphetamine (2.5 mg/kg) that produces a level of stereotypies comparable to the intermediate dose of methylphenidate. The methylphenidate-induced changes in dopamine and its metabolites were consistent with changes induced by other uptake blockers, and the magnitude of the dopamine response for a behaviorally comparable dose was considerably less than that with amphetamine. Likewise, the dose-dependent increase in norepinephrine in response to methylphenidate was also significantly less than that with amphetamine. However, in contrast to amphetamine, methylphenidate had no effect on extracellular serotonin. These results do not support the hypothesis that a stimulant-induced increase in serotonin is necessary for the appearance of stereotyped behaviors.     

去甲肾上腺素转运体的研究进展

随着分子克隆技术的发展和应用,已经可以克隆出人的去甲肾上腺素转运体(Norepinephrine transporter,NET)基因转染进哺乳动物细胞内进行体外研究。去甲肾上腺素转运体在神经传递中有着非常重要的作用,许多神经以及精神系统方面的疾病,心血管疾病等都与去甲肾上腺素转运体的功能缺失或紊乱有关。本文主要介绍了去甲肾上腺素转运体的基本概念和近年来国外对去甲肾上腺素转运体的研究概况,综述了与该转运体相关的药物的研究进展以及由于去甲肾上腺素转运体的功能紊乱或丧失而导致的疾病的临床研究。最近几年对于NET基因表达调控以及各种临床疾病的研究对这些疾病的治疗方法的探索有着非常重要的意义。     

Membrane-permeable C-terminal Dopamine Transporter Peptides Attenuate Amphetamine-evoked Dopamine Release

The dopamine transporter (DAT) is responsible for sequestration of extracellular dopamine (DA). The psychostimulant amphetamine (AMPH) is a DAT substrate, which is actively transported into the nerve terminal, eliciting vesicular depletion and reversal of DA transport via DAT. Here, we investigate the role of the DAT C terminus in AMPH-evoked DA efflux using cell-permeant dominant-negative peptides. A peptide, which corresponded to the last 24 C-terminal residues of DAT (TAT-C24 DAT) and thereby contained the Ca²⁺-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase IIα (CaMKIIα) binding domain and the PSD-95/Discs-large/ZO-1 (PDZ)-binding sequence of DAT, was made membrane-permeable by fusing it to the cell membrane transduction domain of the HIV-1 Tat protein (TAT-C24WT). The ability of TAT-C24WT but not a scrambled peptide (TAT-C24Scr) to block the CaMKIIα-DAT interaction was supported by co-immunoprecipitation experiments in heterologous cells. In heterologous cells, we also found that TAT-C24WT, but not TAT-C24Scr, decreased AMPH-evoked 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium efflux. Moreover, chronoamperometric recordings in striatum revealed diminished AMPH-evoked DA efflux in mice preinjected with TAT-C24WT. Both in heterologous cells and in striatum, the peptide did not further inhibit efflux upon KN-93-mediated inhibition of CaMKIIα activity, consistent with a dominant-negative action preventing binding of CaMKIIα to the DAT C terminus. This was further supported by the ability of a peptide with perturbed PDZ-binding sequence, but preserved CaMKIIα binding (TAT-C24AAA), to diminish AMPH-evoked DA efflux in vivo to the same extent as TAT-C24WT. Finally, AMPH-induced locomotor hyperactivity was attenuated following systemic administration of TAT-C24WT but not TAT-C24Scr. Summarized, our findings substantiate that DAT C-terminal protein-protein interactions are critical for AMPH-evoked DA efflux and suggest that it may be possible to target protein-protein interactions to modulate transporter function and interfere with psychostimulant effects.     

Extracellular Dopamine, Norepinephrine, and Serotonin in the Nucleus Accumbens of Freely Moving Rats During Intracerebral Dialysis with Cocaine and Other Monoamine Uptake Blockers

Abstract: Monoamine-uptake blockers were applied focally (0.1–1,000 µ M ) through a dialysis probe in the nucleus accumbens of freely moving rats, and the extracellular concentrations of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin were measured. The selective dopamine-uptake blocker GBR 12935 increased dopamine preferentially with only a small effect on norepinephrine, whereas the selective serotonin-uptake blocker fluoxetine increased serotonin output preferentially. In contrast, the selective norepinephrine-uptake blockers desipramine and nisoxetine enhanced not only norepinephrine, but also serotonin and dopamine appreciably. Cocaine increased all three amines with the greatest effects on dopamine and serotonin. As in our previous study on the ventral tegmental area, there was a positive association between dopamine and norepinephrine output when all blocker data were taken together. The present results suggest a contribution of the increase in norepinephrine, but not serotonin, to the enhancement of dopamine after cocaine applied focally in the nucleus accumbens.     

Releases of Norepinephrine and Dopamine in Ventriculocisternal Perfusions in Hepatectomized and Laparotomized Rats

Abstract: The completely hepatectomized rat has frequently been used as a model to study changes in the economy of norepinephrine (NE) and dopamine (DA) in hepatic coma. Hypothermia characteristically develops in hepatectomized rats and also occurs in patients in hepatic coma and is associated with improved survival in both. The aims of the present study were to measure both release and uptake of NE and release of DA in brain in warm (37°C) and cool (30–32°C) rats at 3–5 h after laparotomy or hepatectomy. Ventriculocisternal perfusions of the brain were performed on rats under basal conditions and during releases evoked by 40 m M K⁺. Basal releases of NE and DA and evoked release of DA were greater in the warm hepatectomized rats than in all other groups. In some studies, 10⁻⁵ M amitriptyline was added to the perfusates to assess whether neuronal uptake was changed after hepatectomy. Uptake of released NE was equally robust in cool hepatectomized as in cool laparotomized rats but could not be measured in warm hepatectomized rats because of amitriptyline toxicity in these rats. Decreases in NE and increases in DA content were found in most areas of the brain after perfusion. Increased releases of NE and DA may contribute to the pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy.     

The Second Sodium Site in the Dopamine Transporter Controls Cation Permeation and Is Regulated by Chloride

The dopamine transporter (DAT) belongs to the family of neurotransmitter:sodium symporters and controls dopamine (DA) homeostasis by mediating Na⁺- and Cl⁻-dependent reuptake of DA. Here we used two-electrode voltage clamp measurements in Xenopus oocytes together with targeted mutagenesis to investigate the mechanistic relationship between DAT ion binding sites and transporter conductances. In Li⁺, DAT displayed a cocaine-sensitive cation leak current ∼10-fold larger than the substrate-induced current in Na⁺. Mutation of Na⁺ coordinating residues in the first (Na1) and second (Na2) binding sites suggested that the Li⁺ leak depends on Li⁺ interaction with Na2 rather than Na1. DA caused a marked inhibition of the Li⁺ leak, consistent with the ability of the substrate to interact with the Li⁺-occupied state of the transporter. The leak current in Li⁺ was also potently inhibited by low millimolar concentrations of Na⁺, which according to our mutational data conceivably depended on high affinity binding to Na1. The Li⁺ leak was further regulated by Cl⁻ that most likely increases Li⁺ permeation by allosterically lowering Na2 affinity. Interestingly, mutational lowering of Na2 affinity by substituting Asp-420 with asparagine dramatically increased cation permeability in Na⁺ to a level higher than seen in Li⁺. In addition to reveal a functional link between the bound Cl⁻ and the cation bound in the Na2 site, the data support a key role of Na2 in determining cation permeability of the transporter and thereby possibly in regulating the opening probability of the inner gate.     

Effect of Kojic Acid on the Oxidation of DL-DOPA,Norepinephrine, and Dopamine by Mushroom Tyrosinase

Kojic acid inhibits effectively the rate of formation of pigmented product(s) and of oxygen uptake when DL-DOPA, norepinephrine and dopamine are oxidized by mushroom tyrosinase. In addition to the direct effect of kojic acid on the enzyme, kojic acid also affects the UV-VIS spectrum of the final product(s) formed, this being due to the ability of the o-quinones of these substrates to oxidize kojic acid to a yellow product(s). Kojic acid can thus prevent the conversion of the o-quinones of DL-DOPA, norepinephrine and dopamine to their corresponding melanin.     

Newly Synthesized Dopamine as the Precursor for Norepinephrine Synthesis in Bovine Adrenomedullary Chromaffin Cells

The precursor pool of dopamine for norepinephrine synthesis was investigated in cultured bovine adrenomedullary chromaffin cells incubated with [14C]tyrosine. Under conditions where the intracellular [14C]tyrosine specific activity was constant and [14C]dopamine synthesis was maximal, [14C]dopamine and [14C]norepinephrine accumulated over time, and the total intracellular dopamine content more than doubled within 120 min. When [14C]norepinephrine synthesis was calculated at different times based on the specific activity of [14C]dopamine, this rate was approximately equal to the rate of [14C]dopamine synthesis and was, thus, inconsistent with the observed dopamine accumulation. However, the rate of [14C]norepinephrine synthesis based on the [14C]tyrosine specific activity accounted for the dopamine accumulation, an observation suggesting that newly synthesized dopamine, i.e., dopamine with a specific activity equivalent to that of its precursor, [14C]tyrosine, is preferentially utilized for norepinephrine synthesis. Further studies showed that the subcellular distribution of [14C]dopamine was identical to that of norepinephrine and epinephrine and that the accumulated [14C]dopamine could be converted to norepinephrine within the chromaffin vesicle if dopamine uptake was blocked. Taken together, these results suggest that a small intravesicular dopamine pool, rapidly replenished by newly synthesized dopamine, serves as the substrate for dopamine beta-hydroxylase. Several mechanisms to account for this observation are discussed.     

Norepinephrine Microinjections in the Hypothalamic Paraventricular Nucleus Increase Extracellular Dopamine and Decrease Acetylcholine in the Nucleus Accumbens: Relevance to Feeding Reinforcement

Abstract: Norepinephrine (NE) was microinjected into the paraventricular nucleus (PVN), while microdialysis was used to monitor extracellular dopamine (DA) and acetylcholine (ACh) in the nucleus accumbens (NAc). The PVN is a site where exogenously administered NE can act through α₂ receptors to elicit eating behavior and preference for carbohydrates. It was hypothesized that NE in the PVN acts on a behavior reinforcement system by altering the DA/ACh balance in the NAc. NE microinjections (80 nmol in 0.3 µl), which effectively elicited feeding in satiated rats in a separate test, caused a significant increase in extracellular DA (109%) and decrease in ACh (−27%) when the same animals were tested in the absence of food. In contrast when the food was available and ingested, ACh increased (51%) instead of decreasing. These results support the hypothesis that a functional link exists between the PVN and the NAc in which DA helps initiate and ACh helps stop appetitive behavior involved in the reinforcement of eating.     

Restoration of Norepinephrine and Reversal of Phenotypes in Mice Lacking Dopamine β-Hydroxylase

Abstract: Mice with a targeted disruption of the dopamine β-hydroxylase (DBH) gene are unable to synthesize norepinephrine (NE) and epinephrine. These mice have elevated levels of dopamine in most tissues, although the levels are only a fraction of those normally found for NE. It is noteworthy that NE can be restored to normal levels in many tissues after a single injection of the synthetic amino acid precursor of NE, l -threo-3,4-dihydroxyphenylserine (DOPS). In other tissues, NE can be restored to normal levels after multiple injections of DOPS, whereas in the midbrain and cerebellum, restoration of NE is limited to 25–30% of normal. NE levels typically peak ∼5 h after DOPS administration and are undetectable by 48 h. Epinephrine levels are more difficult to restore. The elevated levels of dopamine fall modestly after injection of DOPS. S (−)-Carbidopa, which does not cross the blood-brain barrier, inhibits aromatic l -amino acid decarboxylase and effectively prevents restoration of NE by DOPS in the periphery, while allowing restoration in the CNS. Ptosis and reductions in male fertility, hind-limb extension, postdecapitation convulsions, and uncoupling protein expression in dopamine β-hydroxylase-deficient mice are all reversed by DOPS injection.     

Alterations in Norepinephrine and Dopamine Content in Selected Brain Areas of Guinea Pigs Adapted to Simulated High Altitude

Abstract: The alterations in brain content of norepinephrine (NE) and dopamine (DA) were studied in guinea pigs adapted to simulated high altitude (hypobaric hypoxia) equivalent to 5500 meters. The animals were adapted for 46 days over a period of 82 days to a pressure of 375 mm Hg. The animals were then killed and the following brain parts dissected: cerebellum, neocortex, caudate head/basal forebrain, diencephalons/rhinencephalon, and brain stem. NE and DA content were analyzed by high pressure liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection by a technique described. Results showed a significant increase of NE and DA in neocortex; a significant increase of DA but not NE in caudate/basal forebrain, and a significant decrease of NE and not DA in diencephalons/rhinencephalon.     

Blockade of the Noradrenaline Carrier Increases Extracellular Dopamine Concentrations in the Prefrontal Cortex: Evidence that Dopamine Is Taken up In Vivo by Noradrenergic Terminals

The effect of systemic administration of desmethylimipramine (DMI) and oxaproptiline (OXA), two inhibitors of the noradrenaline (NA) reuptake carrier, on the in vivo extracellular concentrations of dopamine (DA) was studied by transcerebral dialysis in the prefrontal cortex and in the dorsal caudate of freely moving rats. In the NA-rich prefrontal cortex, either drug increased extracellular DA concentrations whereas in the dorsal caudate neither was effective. Haloperidol increased extracellular DA concentrations more effectively in the dorsal caudate than in the prefrontal cortex. Pre-treatment with DMI or OXA, which failed to modify the effect of haloperidol in the dorsal caudate, potentiated its action in the prefrontal cortex. 6-Hydroxydopamine lesioning of the dorsal NA bundle prevented the ability of OXA to increase DA concentrations. The results suggest that reuptake into NA terminals in an important mechanism by which DA is cleared from the extracellular space in a NA-rich area such as the prefrontal cortex. The elevated extracellular concentrations of DA resulting from blockade of such mechanism by tricyclic antidepressants may play a role in the therapeutic effects of these drugs.     

Role of Acetylcholine Receptors and Dopamine Transporter in Regulation of Extracellular Dopamine in Rat Carotid Body Cultures Grown in Chronic Hypoxia or Nicotine

Abstract: Using dissociated rat carotid body (CB) cultures, we compared levels of extracellular dopamine (DA) around oxygen-sensitive glomus cells grown for ～12 days in normoxia (Nox; 20% O₂), chronic hypoxia (CHox; 6% O₂), or chronic nicotine (CNic; 10 µM nicotine, 20% O₂), with or without acetylcholine (ACh) receptor (AChR) agonists/antagonists and blockers of DA uptake. In Nox cultures, extracellular DA, determined by HPLC and normalized to the number of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive glomus cells present, was augmented by acute (～15-min) exposure to hypoxia (5% O₂; ～6× basal), high extracellular K⁺ (30 mM; ～10× basal), nomifensine (1 µM; a selective DA uptake inhibitor; ～3× basal), and nicotine (100 µM; ～5× basal), but not methylcholine (300 µM; a specific muscarinic agonist). In contrast, in CHox cultures where basal DA release is markedly elevated (～9× control), the stimulatory effect of high K⁺ (3–4× basal) and acute hypoxia (～2× basal) on DA release persisted, but nicotine and nomifensine were no longer effective and methylcholine had a partial inhibitory effect. In CNic cultures, basal DA levels were also elevated (～9× control), similar to that in CHox cultures; however, although acute hypoxia had a stimulatory effect on DA release (～2× basal), nicotine, nomifensine, and high K⁺ were ineffective. The elevated basal DA in both CHox and CNic cultures was attenuated by acute or chronic treatment with mecamylamine (100 µM), a nicotinic AChR (nAChR) antagonist. In addition, long-term (16-h), but not acute (15-min), treatment with the muscarinic antagonist atropine (1 µM) produced an additional enhancement of basal DA levels in CHox cultures. Thus, after chronic hypoxia or nicotine in vitro, extracellular DA levels around CB chemoreceptor cell clusters appear to be set by a variety of factors including released ACh, positive and negative feedback regulation via nAChRs and muscarinic AChRs, respectively, and modulation of DA transporters. These results provide insight into roles of endogenous transmitters in the adaptation of CB chemoreceptors to chronic hypoxia and suggest pathways by which neuroactive drugs, e.g., nicotine, can interfere with the protective chemoreflex response against hypoxia.     

Computational and Biochemical Docking of the Irreversible Cocaine Analog RTI 82 Directly Demonstrates Ligand Positioning in the Dopamine Transporter Central Substrate-binding Site

The dopamine transporter (DAT) functions as a key regulator of dopaminergic neurotransmission via re-uptake of synaptic dopamine (DA). Cocaine binding to DAT blocks this activity and elevates extracellular DA, leading to psychomotor stimulation and addiction, but the mechanisms by which cocaine interacts with DAT and inhibits transport remain incompletely understood. Here, we addressed these questions using computational and biochemical methodologies to localize the binding and adduction sites of the photoactivatable irreversible cocaine analog 3β-(p-chlorophenyl)tropane-2β-carboxylic acid, 4′-azido-3′-iodophenylethyl ester ([¹²⁵I]RTI 82). Comparative modeling and small molecule docking indicated that the tropane pharmacophore of RTI 82 was positioned in the central DA active site with an orientation that juxtaposed the aryliodoazide group for cross-linking to rat DAT Phe-319. This prediction was verified by focused methionine substitution of residues flanking this site followed by cyanogen bromide mapping of the [¹²⁵I]RTI 82-labeled mutants and by the substituted cysteine accessibility method protection analyses. These findings provide positive functional evidence linking tropane pharmacophore interaction with the core substrate-binding site and support a competitive mechanism for transport inhibition. This synergistic application of computational and biochemical methodologies overcomes many uncertainties inherent in other approaches and furnishes a schematic framework for elucidating the ligand-protein interactions of other classes of DA transport inhibitors.     

Effects of Methylphenidate Analogues on Phenethylamine Substrates for the Striatal Dopamine Transporter

Methylphenidate (MPD) was found to inhibit competitively the striatal dopamine transporter (DAT) and bind at sites on the DAT in common with both cocaine (a non-substrate site ligand) and amphetamine (a substrate site ligand). Some methylphenidate analogues modified on the aromatic ring and/or at the nitrogen were tested to determine whether the profile of inhibition could be altered. None was found to stimulate the release of dopamine in the time frame (< or = 60 s) of the experiments conducted, and each of the analogues tested was found to noncompetitively inhibit the transport of dopamine. It was found that halogenating the aromatic ring with chlorine (threo-3,4-dichloromethylphenidate hydrochloride; compound 1) increased the affinity of MPD to inhibit the transport of dopamine. A derivative of MPD with simultaneous, single methyl group substitutions on the phenyl ring and at the nitrogen (threo-N-methyl-4-methylphenidate hydrochloride; compound 2) bound at a site in common with MPD. A benzyl group positioned at the nitrogen (threo-N-benzylmethylphenidate hydrochloride; compound 3) imparted properties to the inhibitor in which binding at substrate and non-substrate sites could be distinguished. This analogue bound at a mutually interacting site with that of methylphenidate and had a K(int) value of 4.29 microM. Furthermore, the N-substituted analogues (compounds 2 and 3), although clearly inhibitors of dopamine transport, were found to attenuate dramatically the inhibition of dopamine transport by amphetamine, suggesting that the development of an antagonist for substrate analogue drugs of abuse may be possible.     

Down-Regulation of Norepinephrine Transporters on PC12 Cells by Transporter Inhibitors

Abstract: To investigate the regulation of norepinephrine transporters (NETs) in vitro, we measured the binding of the NET-selective ligand [³H]nisoxetine in homogenates of PC12 cells after exposure of intact cells to the NET inhibitor desipramine (DMI). A 3-day exposure of PC12 cells to DMI robustly reduced the B _max, but not the K _D, of [³H]nisoxetine binding to NETs. Reduction of the binding of [³H]nisoxetine was dependent on both the concentration of DMI and the time of exposure to DMI. Reduction of [³H]nisoxetine binding to NETs produced by a 1-day exposure to DMI reverted to preexposure levels 48 h after cessation of DMI exposure. Similar down-regulation of NETs was found when PC12 cells were exposed to another NET-selective drug, nisoxetine, which is structurally unrelated to DMI. In contrast, exposure of cells to the serotonin transporter-selective drug citalopram, or the NET substrate norepinephrine, had no effects on the binding of [³H]nisoxetine to NETs. The down-regulation of NETs was paralleled by a DMI-induced reduction in the uptake of [³H]norepinephrine in intact PC12 cells. It can be inferred from these data that inhibitors of the NET can down-regulate NETs directly, and do so in the absence of changes in the synaptic concentration of norepinephrine.     

Regulation of Norepinephrine Uptake by Adenine Nucleotides and Divalent Cations: Role for Extracellular Protein Phosphorylation

This study examined the hypothesis that ATP, released together with norepinephrine (NE) from brain noradrenergic nerve terminals, may serve as a cosubstrate for an extracellular protein phosphorylation system that regulates the reuptake of the transmitter, NE. The possible regulation of high-affinity uptake (uptake 1) of [3H]NE by divalent cations and ATP, both of which are involved in protein phosphorylation, was examined in rat cerebral cortical synaptosomes. A marked inhibition of uptake 1 by 5'-adenylylimidodiphosphate [App(NH)p], a nonhydrolyzable, competitive antagonist of ATP, was observed. A similar inhibition of uptake was observed when Ca2+ and Mg2+ were both omitted from the incubation medium. App(NH)p distinguished the actions of Ca2+ from those of Mg2+: Ca2+-stimulated uptake 1 was blocked by App(NH)p; Mg2+-stimulated uptake was not. In parallel experiments, the patterns of protein phosphorylation in crude and purified preparations of synaptosomes were examined under conditions similar to those used in uptake assays. A striking correlation was found between the inhibition of uptake 1, by either App(NH)p or Ca-omission, and inhibition of the phosphorylation of one specific, 39,000-dalton, Ca2+-dependent, protein component in synaptosomes. This 39K protein was distinct from the alpha subunit of pyruvate dehydrogenase, a mitochondrial protein of similar electrophoretic mobility. These findings are consistent with the possibility that an ectokinase on synaptosomes utilizes extracellular ATP and Ca2+ in phosphorylating a protein(s) associated with the regulation of NE uptake.     

Contribution of Sulfate Conjugation, Deamination, and O-Methylation to Metabolism of Dopamine and Norepinephrine in Human Brain

Abstract: The kinetic constants were determined for dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE) metabolism by phenolsulfotransferase (PST), type A and B monoamine oxidase (MAO), and membrane-bound and soluble catechol- O - methyltransferase (COMT) in frontal lobe preparations of human brain. PST and membrane-bound COMT were found to have the lowest K _m, values for both catecholamines. By means of the appropriate rate equations and the calculated kinetic constants for each enzyme, the activity of each enzymatic pathway was determined at varying concentrations of DA and NE. Results indicate that deamination by MAO is the principal pathway for the enzymatic inactivation of DA whereas NE is largely metabolized by MAO type A and membrane-bound COMT under the in vitro assay conditions used. At concentrations less than 100 μ M , soluble COMT'contributes less than 5% to the total catabolism of either catecholamine. PST can contribute up to 15% of the total DA metabolism and 7% of NE metabolism.