Imagined lives, suffering, and the work of culture: the embodied discourses of conflict in modern Tibet

This article explores the cultural epidemiology of rlung ("loong") disorder among Tibetans living in the cities and towns of the modern Chinese state of Tibet. Rlung, glossed as air or wind, is the most important of the three humors of the classical Tibetan ethnomedical system. Considered by Tibetans to be contingent upon multiple social, emotional, and religious phenomena, rlung disorders are fertile ground for the development of etiological discourses that incorporate the social and political crises that are part of the rapidly changing Tibetan plateau. In this essay I locate rlung disorder in a confluence of Tibetan ethnomedical constructions of the mind-body-universe linkage, in which rlung stands as the chief symbolic mediator, with ethnic conflict, rapid economic development, and the localization of global debates over Tibetan suffering and human rights.     

藏族的高原适应——西藏藏族生物人类学研究回顾

藏族生活在具有世界屋脊之称的青藏高原, 特殊的生态环境和特殊的文化背景造就了藏族特殊的适应高原缺氧机制, 引起了国内外学者的广泛关注和浓厚的研究兴趣。本文根据国内外数据库的文献并结合我们的研究工作, 从高原适应的角度回顾了30多年藏族人类学研究。回顾显示, 藏族由于长期生活在高原缺氧的环境中, 不仅形态和机能发生了适应性变化, 而且体成分也表现出相应的变化, 体现了形态、机能和体成分的统一。这些变化是长期进化形成的, 与安第斯山人等有明显不同, 就是在同一高原生活的西藏、青海、四川、甘肃和云南的藏族乃至尼泊尔和印度藏族的体质也表现出地域差异, 这些差异的产生是多种因素所致, 两个关键性的基因是导致两大高原人口高原适应机制不同的最主要的原因。     

三岩藏族体质特征研究

三岩是西藏自治区贡觉县与四川省白玉县交界的金沙江峡谷区, 本文对三岩藏族活体的测量数据做了统计分析, 认为三岩藏族的体质特征为高身材、中头型、中鼻; 属于蒙古人种北亚类型, 他们的体质特征不仅与中国南方、北方的其他民族有明显的差别, 而且跟藏族的其他支系也有很大的差别。三岩藏族具有独特的体质特征。     

中国西藏拉托唐古墓地古代居民线粒体全基因组研究

目前青藏高原高海拔地区古DNA研究匮乏。拉托唐古墓地位于青藏高原西南高海拔区域,本文对该墓地出土距今约700年的人骨进行古DNA提取,捕获了高质量线粒体全基因组数据,结合东亚线粒体基因组数据库,运用遗传统计方法开展分析。研究结果表明,距今3000年以内青藏高原西南部人群的遗传历史具有连续性,距今700年左右的拉托唐古墓地居民与距今3150-1250年的古代尼泊尔居民以及现代中国西藏居民母系遗传关系较近,且他们都具有共同的M9a1a1c1b1a单倍群。对M9a1a1c1b1a单倍群的深入研究发现,距今10930-5150年期间青藏高原可能发生了人口扩张事件。以上结果为我们了解古代青藏高原高海拔地区人群遗传历史提供了重要信息。     

卫藏藏族与康巴藏族的Heath-Carter法体型

运用Heath-Carter人体测量法,对云南省迪庆400例康巴藏族成人和西藏林芝507例卫藏藏族成人进行了体型研究。卫藏藏族男性(5.0-6.2-1.1)和康巴藏族男性(4.4-5.1-1.6)均为偏内胚层的中胚层体型。卫藏藏族女性(5.7-6.1-0.8)和康巴藏族女性(5.6-5.7-1.1)均为内胚层-中胚层均衡型体型。总体上看,卫藏藏族和康巴藏族体型具有一致性,也存在差异。卫藏藏族男、女性和康巴藏族男、女性都属于身体线性度低,骨骼、肌肉发达,体脂丰满的体型。卫藏藏族男性、女性比康巴藏族男性、女性的脂肪更多一些,肌肉、骨骼更发达一些,体态更丰满一些。本文从藏族族源的形成以及生活环境的视角,探讨了同为藏族的卫藏与康巴藏族之间体型的异同,和同为生活在高海拔族群间体型差异产生的原因。研究结果提示藏族具有中国北方民族的体型特征。藏族的多脂肪,骨骼肌肉发达,身体粗壮的体型特征也是对高原环境的适应。     

西藏1000例藏族肤纹参数的研究

本文报道了西藏1000例藏族14项肤纹参数。藏族与汉族的肤纹参数接近,与美国明尼苏达州白人的差异较大;在与12个民族的对比中与哈尼族、汉族的差异较小,与维吾尔族差异较大;在不同的地区,与四川平武地区的藏族差异较小,与甘肃甘南地区的藏族差异较大。本文提示肤纹参数在不同人种、不同民族、甚至同一民族不同地区人群间均不可混用。     

Suffering the Winds of Lhasa: Politicized Bodies, Human Rights, Cultural Difference, and Humanism in Tibet

Tibetan refugees and Western activists note that if universal human rights standards were enforced in China, Tibetans would suffer less and come closer to political independence. This article explores potential problems of universalism and individualism in human rights discourse by examining understandings of the body and suffering among Lhasa Tibetan women. Data are taken from accounts of political prisoners and women patients at Lhasa's traditional Tibetan medical hospital. The data suggest a collective subjectivity, based on ideas about karma and congruencies of body, mind, and society that contrast with those found in international human rights discourse. Tibetans are forced to adopt universalist and individualist positions to make their claims for human rights heard while ironically articulating ideas about suffering that would contest such universalist positions. The article proposes a need for alternative conceptualizations of human rights taken from Tibetan epistemologies of suffering, and illustrates the utility of medical anthropological inquiries about embodiment and subjectivity for addressing larger political debates about human rights. [Traditional Tibetan Medicine, Human Rights, Epistemology, Bodily Suffering]     

How Human Household Size Affects the Habitat of Black-and-White Snub-Nosed Monkeys (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Rhinopithecus bieti</Emphasis>) in Hongla Snow Mountain Nature Reserve in Tibet,China

Human impacts on the environment at local or regional scales largely depend on intrinsic characteristics of the population, such as household size, household number, and human population growth. These demographic factors can vary considerably among ethnic groups sharing similar ecological landscapes, yet the role of traditional cultural practices in shaping local environmental impacts is not well known for many parts of the world. We here quantify land-cover changes and their relation to the habitat of the endangered Rhinopithecus bieti in Tibet, in 2 areas populated by different ethnic groups (polyandrous Tibetans and monogamous Naxi) from 1986 to 2006. Results indicate that habitat of the monkey decreased greatly within our study area over the 20-yr period. Polyandrous and monogamous ethnic communities differed in household size, household number, population growth, and per capita and per household land use. The practice of polyandry by ethnic Tibetan appears to have reduced per capita resource consumption by reducing the growth of overall household number and increasing household size, which can mitigate the negative effects of higher human density and population growth on the environment. Ethnic Tibetan may also reduce land impacts by adhering to Buddhist customs and alternative, more sustainable means of livelihood. Accordingly, the protection of traditional cultural resources, such as polyandry and Buddhist beliefs, could be an effective way to aid biodiversity and environmental conservation efforts in this key ecosystem.     

Internal carotid arterial flow velocity during exercise in Tibetan and Han residents of Lhasa (3,658 m).

Cerebral blood flow increases with acute exposure to high altitude, but the effect of hypoxia on the cerebral circulation at rest and during exercise appears influenced by the duration of high-altitude exposure. To determine whether internal carotid artery flow velocity increased with exercise in long-term residents of high altitude and whether resting values and the response to exercise differed in lifelong vs. acclimatized newcomer male residents of high altitude, we studied 15 native Tibetan and 11 Han ("Chinese") 6 +/- 2-yr residents of Lhasa (3,658 m), Tibet Autonomous Region, China. Noninvasive Doppler ultrasound was used to measure internal carotid artery diameter, mean flow velocity, and, in combination, hemoglobin and arterial O2 saturation to assess cerebral O2 delivery. Tibetan and Han groups were similar in body size and resting internal carotid artery diameter, blood pressure, hemoglobin concentration, internal carotid artery mean flow velocity, and calculated cerebral O2 delivery. Submaximal exercise increased internal carotid artery mean flow velocity and cerebral O2 delivery in the Tibetan and Han subjects. At peak exercise, the Tibetans sustained the increase in flow velocity and cerebral O2 delivery, whereas the Hans did not. Across all exercise levels up to and including peak effort, the Tibetans demonstrated a greater increase in internal carotid artery flow velocity and cerebral O2 delivery relative to resting values than did the Hans. The greater cerebral O2 delivery was accompanied by increased peak exercise capacity in the Tibetan compared with the Han group. Our findings suggest that the cerebral blood flow response to exercise is maintained in Tibetan lifelong residents of high altitude.     

Fertility of the Tibetans migrated to Northen India

This paper aims to study the fertility rate of the migrant Tibetans residing in Northern India and finding out the factors which are affecting the fertility level among them. Data are reported on age at menarche, age at marriage, first childbirth, use of contraception, widowhood, migration and on various fertility measures in the Tibetan of Northern India living at low and moderate altitude (600–2000 m), who have migrated from high altitude (4000 m above sea level) in Tibet. The migrant Tibetans reported a relatively lower fertility as compared to the high and moderate altitude populations. This lower fertility is mostly attributable to the use of contraception, the later mean age at marriage and first childbirth, and relatively high proportion of widows in the migrant Tibetans. However, the social as well as biological changes in population during migration should not be overlooked, which have a sufficient impact on fertility.     

Secular morality, village law, and Buddhism in Tibetan societies

Contrary to assumptions frequently made about Buddhist societies and to models promoted by Tibetan elites, not all Tibetans understand their religion in an ethical way. This article demonstrates that, for a community of villagers in Ladakh, Buddhism is not a source of moral guidance nor is it regarded by them as providing authority for the exercise of political or judicial power. Comparing the findings of ethnographers elsewhere in the Tibetan region, it is apparent that many Tibetans regard the cosmos and its inhabitants as having little relevance for the moral order of their community or its political organization. It is suggested that such understandings have a profound effect on local understandings of the ambit and significance of Buddhism and on the course of its assimilation in the region.     

藏族的体质类型和人种学特征

藏族的体质类型和人种学特征一直受到学术界的关注。2018-2021年,我们测量了1530例卫藏、康巴和安多三个藏族人群的体质数据,统计结果发现,藏族男性、女性均为超中等身材,体质量超重,均为圆头型、高头型、中头型、中鼻型、中躯干型、宽胸型、宽肩型、宽骨盆型、中腿型,多有上眼睑皱褶,有内眦褶。对中国15个族群测量指标均数的主成分分析显示,藏族与东亚类型的汉族位点距离近于多数北亚类型族群,更近于多数南亚类型族群。藏族数据与国外资料中的东亚、南亚、北亚、北极类型数据的主成分分析结果显示,藏族与东亚类型位点最为接近。研究证实,当代藏族具有东亚蒙古人种类型的体质特征。     

The Compositae of Xizang (Tibet)

1) The Compositae in Tibet so far known comprise 508 species and 88 genera, which nearly amounts to one fourth of the total number of genera and one third of the total number of species of Compositae in all China, if the number of 2290 species and 220 genera have respectively been counted in all China. In Tibet there are all tribes of Compositae known in China, and surprisingly, the large tribes in Tibetan Compositae are also large ones in all China and the small tribes in Tibet are also small ones in all China. Generally speaking, the large genera in Tibet are also large ones in all China and the small genera in Tibet are likewise small ones in all China. In this sense it is reasonable to say that the Compositae flora of Tibet is an epitome of the Compositae flora of all China. In the Compositae flora of Tibet, there are only 5 large genera each containing 30 species or more. They are Aster, Artemisia, Senecio, Saussurea and Cremanthodium. And 5 genera each containing 10—29 species. They are Erigeron, Anaphalis, Leontopodium, Ajania, Ligularia and Taraxacum. In addition, there are 77 small genera, namely 87% of the total of Compositae genera in Tibet, each comprising 1—9 species, such as Aja-niopsis, Cavea and Vernonia, etc. 2) The constituents of Compositae flora in Tibet is very closely related to those of Sichuan-Yunnan provinces with 59 genera and 250 species in common. Such a situation is evidently brought about by the geographycal proximity in which the Hengtuang Shan Range links southeastern and eastern Tibet with northern and northwestern SichuanYnnnan. With India the Tibetan Compositae have 59 genera and 132 species in common, also showing close floristic relationships between the two regions. Apparently the floristic exchange of Compositae between Tibet and India is realized by way of the mountain range of the Himalayas. The mountain range of the Himalayas, including the parallel ranges, plays a important role as a bridge hereby some members of the Compositae of western or northern Central Asia and of the northern Africa or of western Asia have migrated eastwards or southeastwards as far as the southern part of Fibet and northern part of India, or hereby some Compositae plants of eastern and southeastern Asia or Asia Media have migrated northwestwards as the northern part of Central Asia. Some of the species and genera in common to both Tibet and Sinjiang indicate that this weak floristical relationship between these regions is principally realized through two migration routes: one migration route is by way of the Himalayas including the parallel ranges to Pamir Plataeu and Tien Shan, or vice versa. The other migration route is by way of northern Sinjiang to Mongolia, eastern Inner Mongolia, southwards to Gansu, Qinghai (or western Sichuan), eastern Tibet up to the Himalayas, or vice versa. However, Tibet is not entirely situated at a migration crossroad of the floral elements. An ample amount of the data shows that Compositae flora have a particular capability of development in Tibet. of the total number of species of Tibetan Compositae, 102 species and 1 genus (Ajaniopsis Shih) are endemic. Besides, 8 genera are regional endemics with their range extending to its neighbourhood. The higher percentage of endemics at specific level than at generic in Tibetan Compositae may be a result of active speciation in response to the new enviromental conditions created by the uplifting of the Himalayas. The flora in Tibetan Plateau as a whole appears to be of a younger age. 3) The uprising of the Himalayas and of the Tibetan Plateau accompanied by the ultraviolet ray radiation, the microthermal climate and the high wind pressure has, no doubt, played a profound influence upon the speciation of the native elements of Tibetan Compositae. The recent speciation is the main trend in the development of the Com-positae flora native in Tibet in the wake of upheaval of the plateau.     

Genetic diversity of Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates from Tibetans in Tibet, China

Background

Tuberculosis (TB) is a serious health problem in Tibet where Tibetans are the major ethnic group. Although genotyping of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) isolates is a valuable tool for TB control, our knowledge of population structure of M. tuberculosis circulating in Tibet is limited.

Methodology/Principal Findings

In our study, a total of 576 M. tuberculosis isolates from Tibetans in Tibet, China, were analyzed via spoligotyping and 24-locus MIRU-VNTR. The Beijing genotype was the most prevalent family (90.63%, n = 522). Shared-type (ST) 1 was the most dominant genotype (88.89%, n = 512). We found that there was no association between the Beijing genotype and sex, age and treatment status. In this sample collection, 7 of the 24 MIRU-VNTR loci were highly or moderately discriminative according to their Hunter-Gaston discriminatory index. An informative set of 12 loci had similar discriminatory power with 24 loci set.

Conclusions/Significance

The population structure of M. tuberculosis isolates in Tibetans is homogeneous and dominated by Beijing genotype. The analysis of 24-locus MIRU-VNTR data might be useful to select appropriate VNTR loci for the genotyping of M. tuberculosis.     

Medicinal Plant Knowledge Among Lay People in Five Eastern Tibet Villages

Tibetans in five villages in the Mount Khawa Karpo area of the Menri (Meili Xueshan in Chinese) range, Northwest Yunnan, People’s Republic of China, were interviewed about their knowledge of a number of medicinal plants and their uses. There was large variation in people’s knowledge with significant differences among the villages and between men and women. Most of the reported knowledge focused on a small number of commercial plants and their uses. In comparison with Tibetan doctors, villagers generally knew fewer applications and focused on general health remedies. Many people collected medicinal plants for their own use as well as for sale, but also obtained medicinal plant remedies from markets and Tibetan doctors, and often used traditional Tibetan healthcare in conjunction with biomedical treatment.     

Informed Consent in Cross-cultural Perspective: Clinical Research in the Tibetan Autonomous Region, PRC

Procedures of Informed Consent are considered a high priority for international biomedical research. However, informed consent protocols are not necessarily transferable across cultural, national or ethnic groups. Recent debates identify the need for balancing ethical universals with practical and local conditions and paying attention to questions of cultural competence when it comes to the Informed Consent process for clinical biomedical research. This article reports on the results of a two-year effort to establish a culturally appropriate Informed Consent process for biomedical research in the Tibet Autonomous Region in the People's Republic of China. A team of Tibetan and American researchers, physicians, health professionals and medical anthropologists conducted the research. The Informed Consent was specifically for undertaking a triple-blind, double placebo-controlled randomized clinical trial of a Tibetan medicine compared with Misoprostol for reducing postpartum blood loss. The findings suggest greater need for flexibility and cooperation in establishing Informed Consent protocols across cultures and nations.     

Tracing the Genetic Legacy of the Tibetan Empire in the Balti

The rise and expansion of Tibetan Empire in the 7th to 9th centuries AD affected the course of history across East Eurasia, but the genetic impact of Tibetans on surrounding populations remains undefined. We sequenced 60 genomes for four populations from Pakistan and Tajikistan to explore their demographic history. We showed that the genomes of Balti people from Baltistan comprised 22.6–26% Tibetan ancestry. We inferred a single admixture event and dated it to about 39–21 generations ago, a period that postdated the conquest of Baltistan by the ancient Tibetan Empire. The analyses of mitochondrial DNA, Y, and X chromosome data indicated that both ancient Tibetan males and females were involved in the male-biased dispersal. Given the fact that the Balti people adopted Tibetan language and culture in history, our study suggested the impact of Tibetan Empire on Baltistan involved dominant cultural and minor demic diffusion.     

Multiple origins of Tibetan Y chromosomes

The genetic origin of Tibetans was investigated using Y chromosome markers. A total of three populations were studied, two from central Tibet speaking central Tibetan and one from Yunnan speaking Kham. Two dominant paternal lineages (>80%) were identified in all three populations with one possibly from central Asia (YAP+) and the other from east Asia (M122C). We conclude that Tibetan Y chromosomes may have been derived from two different gene pools, given the virtual absence of M122C in central Asia and YAP+ in east Asia, with drift an unlikely mechanism accounting for these observations.     

古代印度三果浆的传入及其影响

三果浆(三勒浆)为源于印度的传统果药剂,由使君子科植物诃子和毛诃子,以及大戟科植物余甘子等三种植物的果实为原料制作而成,是著名的藏药基础方,也是印度阿育吠陀传统药中使用频率最高的代表方剂.三种植物同时录入《中国药典》,余甘子列入我国药食两用植物目录.中古时期,三果浆随着中外文化的频繁交流及丝绸之路的开通传入中国,而今只...     

On the origin of Tibetans and their genetic basis in adapting high-altitude environments

Since their arrival in the Tibetan Plateau during the Neolithic Age, Tibetans have been well-adapted to extreme environmental conditions and possess genetic variation that reflect their living environment and migratory history. To investigate the origin of Tibetans and the genetic basis of adaptation in a rigorous environment, we genotyped 30 Tibetan individuals with more than one million SNP markers. Our findings suggested that Tibetans, together with the Yi people, were descendants of Tibeto-Burmans who diverged from ancient settlers of East Asia. The valleys of the Hengduan Mountain range may be a major migration route. We also identified a set of positively-selected genes that belong to functional classes of the embryonic, female gonad, and blood vessel developments, as well as response to hypoxia. Most of these genes were highly correlated with population-specific and beneficial phenotypes, such as high infant survival rate and the absence of chronic mountain sickness.