Airborne fungal spores in the Campus of Anchieta (La Laguna,Tenerife/Canary Is.)

A quantitative and qualitative study was carried out of the atmospheric fungal propagules in two university buildings in the Campus of Anchieta (La Laguna, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain) and in the outdoor atmosphere, in order to ascertain the most abundant fungi and the concentration of spores in the air, as possible sources of respiratory allergies caused by this type of aeroallergens. Sampling was carried out using two kinds of traps (Burkard Personal Culture Sampler and Burkard Personal Slide Sampler), as well as adhesive tape. Sample 1, indoor, identified between 650-320 CFU m -3 depending on the culture medium, with outdoor values between 670-440 CFU m -3 ; sample 2, recorded between 630-80 CFU m -3 inside and 580-300 CFUm -3 in the outdoor atmosphere. The most represented genera were Cladosporium and Penicillium , although the following were also identified: Agaricales, Alternaria, Aspergillus, Botrytis, Drechslera, Coprinus, Curvularia, Chaetomium, Exserohilum, Fusarium, Helminthosporium, Leptosphaeria , Myxomycetes, Paecilomyces, Pleospora, Stemphylium, Tetraploa, Torula and Ulocladium .     

Airborne fungal spores in a sawmill environment in Palakkad District, Kerala, India

Concentration of airborne fungal spores inindoor and outdoor environments of a sawmill in Palakkad district of Kerala, India was studied with Burkard Personal Slide Sampler from January to December 1997. Total spore concentration in the indoor and outdoor showed a 3:2 ratio. Higher spore count was observed in indoor in January and in outdoor in October. Thirty three fungal spore types were identified from the indoor and twenty six from the outdoor. Aspergillus/Penicillium, Cladosporium, Nigrospora, Ganoderma, `other basidiospores' and ascospores were the dominant components of the airspora. Aspergillus/Penicillium, the most dominant spore type in the indoor contributed 51.19% and Cladosporium, the most dominant spore type in the outdoor contributed 44.75% of the total spores. The study revealed high prevalence of predominantly allergenic fungal spores in the sawmill environment.     

An assessment of the air quality in indoor and outdoor air with reference to fungal spores and pollen grains in four working environments in Kerala, India

Qualitative and quantitative analyses of airborne fungal spores and pollen grains in four working environments (market, saw mill, poultry and cow sheds) in Thiruvananthapuram, the capital city of Kerala, India, were carried out for 2 years using Burkard Personal Slide Sampler and Andersen Two-Stage Sampler. Total spore concentration in these sites was always higher in indoor environments than in outdoor environments. Difference in concentration was not statistically significant in any of these work places except in saw mill (t test, p < 0.05). The highest spore concentration was recorded here followed by market, poultry and cow sheds. A total of 32 fungal spore types from indoor environments and 33 spore types from outdoor environments were recorded. Of them, 16 spore types were common to all the sites. Ameropsores, Cladosporium, other basidiospores, Ganoderma and Nigrospora were the dominant spore types in both indoor and outdoor environments. A total of 27 species of viable fungi from indoor and 24 species from outdoor environments were identified. Penicillium citrinum, Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus niger were the most dominant viable fungi isolated. In contrast, total pollen concentration was always higher in outdoor environments than in indoor environments. Twenty-nine pollen types from indoor and 32 pollen types from outdoor were captured during the sampling. Poaceae, Cocos, Artocarpus, Amaranthus/Chenopodium and Tridax were the common and dominant pollen types observed in all the sites. Peak spore and pollen incidence were recorded during the late rainy and dry seasons (October–February) in both indoor and outdoor environments. The study revealed high prevalence of predominantly allergenic fungal spores and pollen grains in all the four work places. Workers/visitors are at potential risk of susceptibility to respiratory/allergic disorders.     

Status of airborne spores and pollen in a coir factory in Kerala,India

The prevalence of airborne fungal spores and pollen grains in the indoor and outdoor environments of a coir factory in Thiruvananthapuram district of Kerala state, India was studied using the Burkard Personal Sampler and the Andersen 2-stage Sampler for 2 years (September 1997 to August 1999). The concentration of pollen grains was remarkably lower than that of fungal spores (ratio of 1:28). There was no large difference in the concentrations and types of fungal spores between the indoor and outdoor environments, with 26 spore types found to be present indoors and 27 types outdoors; of these, 22 were common to both the environments. Aspergillus/Penicillium, Cladosporium, ‘other basidiospores’ and ascospores were the dominant spore types. The total spore concentration was highest in February and lowest in September, and it was significantly higher in 1998–1999 than in 1997–1998. Twenty viable colony-forming types were isolated from inside the coir factory. The most dominant viable fungi isolated were Penicillium citrinum, Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus niger. The total pollen concentration was higher in the outdoor environment of the coir factory than indoors, with 15 and 17 pollen types, respectively. Grass and Cocos nucifera pollen types were dominant. The dominant spore and pollen types trapped in the two environments of the coir factory are reportedly allergenic and, consequently, workers are at risk of catching respiratory/allergic diseases.     

Atmospheric concentration of pollen grains at human height

An atmospheric survey at human height (1.5–1.8 ft) was carried out from February 1988 to January 1990, in four different ecozones of the Delhi metropolis. The samples were collected by using Burkard Personal Volumetric Sampler at weekly intervals. The sampler was operating for 15 min three times a day (07, 14, 20 hrs). Altogether, 84 pollen types were identified. Some of the dominant pollen types recorded were Poaceae (25.1%), Cheno/Amaranthaceae (14.5%) and Ricinus communis (12.3%) followed by Morus, Cannabis, Prosopis, Parthenium and Artemisia. Weekly variations were recorded for the total number of pollen of different types in different months. Two major pollen seasons 1. February — April and 2. August — October were observed, although pollen was recorded throughout the year. Significant variation in total and individual pollen concentration was recorded from different inhabited areas in the same urban locality. Any definite daily pattern in the occurrence of pollen was not recorded. The concentration at lower height was also poor.     

First results of a study on airborne sporomorps in Budapest,Hungary

The first results of an aerobiological study, with the help of a Burkard spore trap in Hungary, are reported. A pollen calendar of 1989 is presented. Out of the total identified sporomorphs, the most relevant 16 types of pollen and 10 of fungal spores are reported. We have pointed out, that in Budapest Ambrosia and Artemisia pollen and some fungal spores are particularly responsible for the long lasting allergies to pollen and spores in the autumn. The pollen frequencies and the symptom scores of patients of the Pediatrics (Semmelweis Medical School, Budapest) showed a good correlation. Weekly reports are published in a newspaper and in television.     

Cladosporium and respiratory allergy: Diagnostic implications in Saudi Arabia

An allergological study to evaluate allergenicity to Cladosporium, Burkard 7-Day Volumetric Spore Trap and Personal Volumetric air sampler (viable mode) were employed to conduct air sampling for 12 months in three regions of Saudi Arabia. The study was extended for a continuous 3rd year at one site. Skin prick testing (SPT) was also conducted on 605 allergic individuals using commercial extracts of C. herbarum. Cladosporium emerged to be the most prevalent genus in the outdoor environment constituting up to 25% of all fungal spores in the dry region and 37.1 and 41.2% in two coastal cities respectively. Amongst the species C. sphaerospermum, C. macrocarpum, C. cladosporioides and C. herbarum were noted. Maximum hourly concentrations up to 14 x 10(3) m(-3) were recorded in coastal region during winter months. Morning concentrations were higher at both city sites compared to afternoon concentration. SPT result revealed an overall 19.67% positive reactions with majority showing mild reactions.     

The incidence of fungal spores in the ambient air and inside homes: Evidence from London

Little research has been carried out in London concerning fungal spore prevalence yet this information may help to elucidate geographical patterns of asthma and hay fever. Although many types of spore reach peak concentrations outdoors in late-summer, the incidences in the indoor environment may be more important through the winter because of heating and poor ventilation. Daily average concentrations of fungal spores in the ambient atmosphere were monitored with a Burkard volumetric spore trap on an exposed roof in North London from autumn 1991 until the summer of 1992. Indoor spore measurements were taken in 19 homes in the vicinity through the winter months, both by direct air sampling using a portable Burkard sampler and by dust culture. Trends in the occurrence and concentrations of fungal spores indoors and outdoors were examined. Relationships between the abundance of selected allergenic fungi and features of the houses were analysed including age of dwelling, dampness, cleanliness and presence of pets.Aspergillus andPenicillium were the most frequently occurring spore types in the homes. Overall, high spore incidence was associated with dampness and dust accumulation. The outdoor spore samples revealed generally low concentrations through the winter until March when concentrations of many types includingCladosporium, Epicoccum andAlternaria increased in abundance in response to the warmer weather. Even during the late-spring and early-summer, concentrations of most fungal spores were notably below those reported for rural sites.     

Contribution of leaf surface fungi to the air spora

High concentrations of airborne fungal spores frequently occur from spring through fall in temperate areas of the world. Although it is generally assumed that fungi on leaf surfaces are contributors to the air spora, little data are available comparing the types of fungi found on leaf surfaces with those in the atmosphere. Air sampling was carried out with a Burkard Spore Trap located on the roof of a building on the University of Tulsa campus using standard methods. Leaf samples were aseptically collected from Ulmus americana and Quercus palustris trees on campus, placed in sterile plastic bags, and brought to the lab. For each leaf, 4 cm² areas of both upper and lower leaf surfaces were swabbed and plated on malt extract agar with streptomycin. Cultures were incubated at room temperature for 5–7 days and then examined microscopically. Results were expressed as colony forming units (CFU)/cm². Twenty-one fungal taxa were identified from the air samples. The most abundant taxa were Cladosporium, ascospores, basidiospores, and Alternaria; together these four spore types comprised over 90% of the yearly total. Yeasts were the most abundant fungi isolated from both leaf types. Among the mycelial fungi were Phoma species, followed by Cladosporium and Alternaria. Overall twenty genera of filamentous fungi were identified. Yeasts and Phoma are normally splash dispersed and were not identified in the Burkard air samples. However, 10 taxa isolated from leaf surfaces were registered in air samples. Crude estimates of the leaf surface area of each tree suggest that the total fungal load was approximately 5.04×10⁸ CFU for Ulmus and 2.71×10⁸ CFU for Quercus. Of these levels, 19% were from fungi also detected in air samples. The data suggest that some leaf-surface fungi are major contributors to the air spora.     

Outdoor airborne fungi captured by viable and non-viable methods

Volume assessments of the concentration of airborne fungi may provide different results depending on the methodology used. This work simultaneously analyses two methods for samples obtained outdoors and analysed in the context of meteorological conditions. The study was carried out in Badajoz (SW Spain) from Mar. 2009 to Jul. 2011. A Burkard fixed spore trap was used for the non-viable sampling, and three different methods were used for the viable sampling: a Burkard portable spore trap with two inlet port types and a Sampl'air AES trap. Daily average total concentrations of 285 CFU m⁻³ and 1 954 spores m⁻³ were recorded for the viable and non-viable methods, respectively. The spore/colony ratio showed important differences among the most relevant fungal types: Alternaria (2.6), Aspergillus–Penicillium (2.0) and Cladosporium (11.1). Although the two sampling types were essentially equivalent at showing temporal variations in outdoor airborne fungi, quantitative differences in the number of total colonies recorded depended on the culture media and conditions used.     

Preliminary studies on the effect of the Burkard alternate orifice on airborne fungal spore concentrations

The Burkard 7-day spore trap with standard orifice is commonly used by researchers in sampling outdoor air. The alternate orifice is reported to have higher efficiency in collecting small airborne fungal spores; however, no previous studies compared Burkard samplers with different orifices. This study was conducted to study the effect of the alternate orifice on the concentration of airborne fungal spores. Air samples were collected from July to October 2005 with two Burkard spore traps, one had the standard orifice and the second had the alternate orifice. The two spore traps were located on the roof of a building (12 m height) at the University of Tulsa, Oklahoma. Burkard daily slides were analyzed for airborne spores by light microscopy. The data from the two samplers were statistically analyzed using t-tests. The results indicated that the alternate orifice had significantly higher concentrations of Penicillium/Aspergillus-type spores and basidiospores than the standard orifice. By contrast, the standard orifice had significantly higher concentrations of Alternaria, ascospores, and other spores than the alternate orifice. The alternate orifice can be used to increase the efficiency of trapping small spores, which can be underestimated by using the standard orifice. However, additional comparison in other months of the year is recommended.     

Aeromycoflora of an agricultural farm in West Bengal,India: A five-year study (1994–1999)

A five-year (1994–1999) continuous survey of aeromycoflora had been carried out in an agricultural farm at a suburban area of Greater Calcutta. The sampling was carried out with Burkard volumetric spore trap placed 0.5?meter above the ground level at the centre in a small plot in a rice field. A total of 26 fungal spore types were identified microscopically. The most abundant types were Basidiospores (21.85–5.59%) followed by Cladosporium, Periconia, Nigrospora, Aspergilli group, Ascospores. The seasonal periodicity of the major dominant types had maxima in autumn, during the month of October. This coincided with the harvesting period of the rice crop during rainy season. In Petri plate exposure of nutrient media, different species of aspergilli group, Alternaria, Cladosporium, Curvularia, Nigrospora, and other taxa were identified. The diurnal periodicities recorded for different types were classified into night-time, post dawn, middle day and double maxima (showing two peaks in a day) patterns. In general, no significant correlation between the total air spora and the meteorological parameters could be established. It is evident that the local cropping practices may have some regulating role on spore concentration in the air of the study area.     

Evaluation of three portable samplers for monitoring airborne fungi

Airborne fungi were monitored at five sample sites with the Burkard portable, the RCS Plus, and the SAS Super 90 air samplers; the Andersen 2-stage impactor was used for comparison. All samplers were calibrated before being used simultaneously to collect 100-liter samples at each site. The Andersen and Burkard samplers retrieved equivalent volumes of airborne fungi; the SAS Super 90 and RCS Plus measurements did not differ from each other but were significantly lower than those obtained with the Andersen or Burkard samplers. Total fungal counts correlated linearly with Cladosporium and Penicillium counts. Alternaria species, although present at all sites, did not correlate with total count or with amounts of any other fungal genera. Sampler and location significantly influenced fungal counts, but no interactions between samplers and locations were found.     

A comparison of 1978 and 2006 peak pollen seasons and sampling methods in Missoula, Montana

A study was conducted in Missoula, Montana to compare local pollen counts from 1978 with those measured nearly 30 years later in 2006 using two different measurement techniques (Durham gravimetric sampler and a Burkard volumetric sampler). Trends in peak pollen times measured during the spring, summer and autumn, respectively, were compared between the two years by Pearson's correlation and frequency of occurrence of plant genus. Meteorological conditions were also examined during each of the two study periods.In comparing the two years, there was a statistically significant linear association between the different counts for the months of April through August, with similar levels of pollen types for any given month. The five predominant pollen types (based on counts) identified in each study were Pinus, Poaceae, Populus, Alnus, and Betula for 2006 and Pinus, Poaceae, Populus, Acer and Artemisia for 1978. In summary most of the genera displayed similar peak pollination timing between the two years, suggesting that results from the Durham (gravimetric) and Burkard (volumetric) sampling methods are comparable when reporting relative frequency of occurrence.     

A fungal spore calendar for the atmosphere of Melbourne, Australia, for the year 1993

A calendar of fungal spore seasons for Melbourne during 1993was established using a 7-day volumetric Burkard trap. Twenty-ninegenera and five spore groups were identified. The dominant spore typesdetected were Cladosporium (41.7%),Leptosphaeria (14.9%), Coprinus (14.6%),`Ascospore 1' (5.5%), Ganoderma (2.1%) andAlternaria (1.4%). Seasonally, spore levels ofCladosporium and Alternaria peaked in spring andsummer, Leptosphaeria and Ganoderma peaked towardsummer and autumn, `Ascospore 1' peaked in winter, whilst spore levelsof the basidiomycete Coprinus fluctuated year round. Inconclusion, a range of allergenic fungal spores were present in the airof Melbourne throughout the year.     

Evaluation of three portable samplers for monitoring airborne fungi.

Airborne fungi were monitored at five sample sites with the Burkard portable, the RCS Plus, and the SAS Super 90 air samplers; the Andersen 2-stage impactor was used for comparison. All samplers were calibrated before being used simultaneously to collect 100-liter samples at each site. The Andersen and Burkard samplers retrieved equivalent volumes of airborne fungi; the SAS Super 90 and RCS Plus measurements did not differ from each other but were significantly lower than those obtained with the Andersen or Burkard samplers. Total fungal counts correlated linearly with Cladosporium and Penicillium counts. Alternaria species, although present at all sites, did not correlate with total count or with amounts of any other fungal genera. Sampler and location significantly influenced fungal counts, but no interactions between samplers and locations were found.     

Pollen and Spore Incidence and Phenology in the Stockholm Area during 1972

Records of air-borne pollen and spores were made during a six month period in the Stockholm area in 1972. This paper presents phenological data and volumetric measurements obtained by means of a Burkard trap. Attention was paid to both arboreal pollen and non-arboreal pollen and spores, identified to family, genus or species level. Spores of certain common Pteridophytes were also included in the investigation, but not Bryophytes or fungal spores.     

Analysis of the potential fungal biodeteriogen effects in the “Doctorate Library” of the University of Perugia,Italy

Historical collections held in ancient archives and libraries constitute a cultural and artistic heritage of inestimable value. These collections contain a series of organic materials which may alter and perish in time, especially if they are conserved in inadequate environmental conditions and without any specific precautionary devices to protect them from damage caused by chemical, biological and physical factors. It is essential to prevent ‘at risk’ situations to conserve library and archive heritage. Early detection of fungal spores and moulds in conservation environments will permit us to intervene at the infection site at the right moment and also to detect the micro‐environments where climatic parameters are not suitable for conservation purposes.

The aim of this study is to examine potentially biodeteriogen fungal micro‐flora in the environment of the “Doctorate Library”, one of the most important buildings of the University of Perugia, which contains frescos and library collection of great value. The study was carried out through quantitative and qualitative analysis of airborne fungal species and through the evaluation of viable aerobiological particles as potential agents of biodeterioration. The airspore monitoring was made using the active method (by Personal Volumetric Air Sampler Spore Trap, Burkard Company Ltd.) and the passive one (by sedimentation technique on Petri dishes). The results obtained by both methods allowed us to detect numerous potentially biodeteriogen species, to determine their quantity and influence and to evaluate the levels of their variability in time.     

Airborne fungi in the hospitals of metropolitan Delhi

Summary The fungal airspora of a large hospital in Delhi Metropolis was studied from May 1989 – April 1991, using Andersen Six Stage Volumetric Sampler and Burkard Personal Slide Sampler. Simultaneously, samples were also collected from outside the hospital to act as a control. Samplers were operated for 10 min. each time, at 10 - day intervals. Additional samples were also collected from different sections of 3 other hospitals. Some of the dominant forms encountered wereCladosporium spp.,Aspergillus flavus, Smut,Fusarium spp.,Aspergillus niger, Alternaria spp.,Penicillium citrinum, Aspergillus versicolor, andPenicillium oxalicum. Aspergillus flavus showed significantly high concentration inside hospital (n=66, x=53 CFU m^–3, p<0.05) as compared to outside air. The peak period for fungi was observed to be from June – September. The spore concentration was much lower in hospital units receiving filtered air as compared to control environment, but in naturally ventilated hospitals the concentration was similar to that of outside air.     

Airborne pollen survey of central calcutta,india, in relation to allergy

A continuous aeropalynological survey at Central Calcutta for two consecutive years (1985–1987) was done by using a Burkard Seven Day Recording Volumetric Spore Trap. A total of 65 pollen taxa was identified of which pollen of Trema orientalis showed a maximum frequency (about 68%) followed by Poaceae and Cyperaceae. A pollen calendar was prepared and seasonal periodicities were recorded. Some entomophilous pollen types (e.g., Delonix regia, Bougainvillea spectabilis) were also observed. The presence of pollen of Pinus, Podocarpus, and Alnus in the air of Calcutta is probably due to long distance transport from Eastern Himalayas where these plants grow. Routine skin tests were performed by using the antigenic extracts of 22 pollen types where grass, Catharanthus roseus, Cocos nucifera, Azadirachta indica, Carica papaya, Albizia lebbek, Shorea robusta, Eucalyptus sp., Terminalia sp., were proved to be allergenically potent.