Aeromycological study in the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela (Spain)

A study of airborne fungi was carried out in the architectural complex of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela (Spain) during 2002, by using viable volumetric sampling methods. This resulted in a total of 35 identified taxa, of which the most abundant were: Alternaria, Aspergillus, Cladosporium and Penicillium. Sampling was completed with data from the outdoor atmosphere and swab samples in specific places.In general there were no statistically significant indoor/outdoor differences and in both cases the highest CFU m-3 were obtained during the spring-summer. Similar relatively low numbers of the same fungi were likewise detected at different points in the Cathedral nave, while up to nearly 6500 CFU m-3 were recorded in the Corticela Chapel. The study of intradiurnal levels carried out in the Cathedral nave reveals greater abundance of fungal concentrations at 13:00 h, the moment of massive influx of visitors in the Cathedral, with 406 CFU m-3 compared to the 380 CFU m-3 sampled at 9:00 h and the 350 CFU m-3 at 21:00 h. The whole investigation is the first study of the atmospheric fungal content of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela.     

Airborne pollen data of Platanaceae in Santiago de Compostela (Iberian Peninsula)

The pollen count of the Platanus genus in the atmosphere of Santiago de Compostela (Galicia, Spain) was carried out from 1993 to 1998, with the pollen of this taxon representing 6% of total identified pollen. The principal pollination period (P.P.P.) was centred on the months of March and April, with an average duration of 23 days.During the study period we obtained negative correlations with precipitation and humidity and positive ones with temperature and hours of sunshine, with a confidence index of more than 90%. On the basis of the six-year study period, we also calculated the average accumulated temperature required to trigger the onset of flowering, which oscillated between 330 and 456 °C, with this result being confirmed for 1999 (437 °C). We also observed that the values of maximum pollen concentration of this taxon in the last 7 years (1993–1999), were obtained on days during the P.P.P. with maximum temperatures above 18 °C. The model of intradiurnal variation reflects, for the majority of years, a greater representation during the central hours of the day.     

Aerobiological monitoring of Cupressaceae pollen in Santiago de Compostela (NW Iberian Peninsula) over six years

This study analyzes the pollenrepresentation of Cupressaceae in theatmosphere of Santiago de Compostela (NWIberian Peninsula) during the years 1993–1998.The samples were collected with a Hirstvolumetric spore trap, situated at a height of27 m above ground level on a building situatedin the south of the city. Cupressaceae pollenis present in the atmosphere practically allyear round, although it is predominant in thewinter period along with Alnus andPinus, standing out due to its markedallergenic nature. During the period understudy 5,128 grains were recorded, whichrepresented 5% of the total pollen identified.The principal pollination period for thispollen type in each sampling year and itsintra-diurnal variation were calculated. Thecorrelation between the pollen content of eachyear and the main meteorological parameters islikewise presented.     

Poaceae pollen in the atmosphere of Santiago de Compostela: its relationship with meteorology

This work analyses the behaviour of Poaceae pollen during a 3-year sampling period (1993–1995) in the city of Santiago de Compostela (Spain). This taxon is shown to be one of the most abundant in the atmosphere, with representation percentages greater than or equal to 20% of total pollen registered during the said period. Its main pollination period is centred on the months of June and July, with slight modifications in the beginning and finalization dates of the years 1993 and 1994 and a significantly earlier beginning in the year 1995. Overall results show that its presence may be considered significant from the end of May to the first days of August. The differences in Poaceae pollen representation are related to variations in temperature, precipitation and hours of sunshine.     

Local differences in the Archbishopric of Santiago de Compostela (Galicia, Spain) in relation to the consanguinity structure, 1900-1979

The microgeographic variability of consanguinity in the Archbishopric of Santiago de Compostela (Galicia) between 1900 and 1979 was studied. This Archbishopric covers 106 local councils integrated by 964 parishes, of which 677 (70.23%) were analyzed. Of the 307,094 marriages counted within this period, 15,739 corresponded to weddings between biologically related couples. Within the Archbishopric, eight geographical regions were considered: six coastal regions (Golfo Artabro, Berganti?os, Fisterra, Xallas, Santiago Oeste, and Rías Baixas) and two inland regions (Santiago Este and Terra de Montes). In order to evaluate the differences and similarities among them, the frequencies of all types of marriages (consanguineous and nonconsanguineous) were considered. First, a hierarchical grouping of the regions based on their chi-squared distances was performed. Then, in order to analyze relationships that are exclusively due to the structure of consanguinity, a correspondence analysis was performed and only the frequency of the different types of consanguineous marriages was taken into account. The results from both statistical analyses indicate special features of the Xallas region, both in the level of inbreeding (8.75%, the highest in the Archbishopric) and in the structure of consanguinity, for which a high proportion of uncle-niece marriages was found (6.22% of all consanguineous marriages). In all cases the structure of consanguinity provides informative nuances on the differences and similarities among population groups.     

Seasonal fluctuations of the airborne pollen spectrum in Murcia (SE Spain)

During six consecutive years (1993–1998), aBurkard volumetric pollen trap was continuouslyoperated to sample pollen from the air of thecity of Murcia. The aim of the study was toelucidate the spectra of airborne pollen andthe variations during the year, and toelaborate a pollen calendar. This time spanincludes the end of the period with severedrought from 1990–1995, which particularly affected the south-eastern region of Spain.The total sum of daily average pollenconcentrations amounted to 148,645 pollen grainsbelonging to 93 different taxa. A daily averageof 74 pollen grains/m³ and 11 taxa wererecorded, with maxima of 1157 and 27respectively. The total pollen amountregistered in a year correlated with yearlyrainfall, but there was no relation with meanannual temperature. As for annual fluctuations,there seemed to be no influence by totalrainfall or temperature. Spring and winter werethe seasons with the highest pollen counts andpollen diversity.From the 93 identified taxa, 36 are included inthe pollen calendar. Noteworthy findings are:(i) the presence of Thymelaeaceae,Robinia, Betula, Castanea,Zygophyllum, Caryophyllaceae andCannabis, (ii) a long pollen season ofChenopodiaceae/Amaranthaceae, Urticaceae,Poaceae, Arecaceae and Plantago, (iii)the occurrence of summer, autumn and winterflowering of Artemisia, (iv) the lateappearance of Corylus pollen, and (v) theminor presence of Casuarina pollen duringthe mid winter and late spring.     

Short-term prediction of Betula airborne pollen concentration in Vigo (NW Spain) using logistic additive models and partially linear models

Betula pollen is a common cause of pollinosis in localities in NW Spain and between 13% and 60% of individuals who are immunosensitive to pollen grains respond positively to its allergens. It is important in the case of all such people to be able to predict pollen concentrations in advance. We therefore undertook an aerobiological study in the city of Vigo (Pontevedra, Spain) from 1995 to 2001, using a Hirst active-impact pollen trap (VPPS 2000) situated in the city centre. Vigo presents a temperate maritime climate with a mean annual temperature of 14.9 °C and 1,412 mm annual total precipitation. This paper analyses two ways of quantifying the prediction of pollen concentration: first by means of a generalized additive regression model with the object of predicting whether the series of interest exceeds a certain threshold; second using a partially linear model to obtain specific prediction values for pollen grains. Both models use a self-explicative part and another formed by exogenous meteorological factors. The models were tested with data from 2001 (year in which the total precipitation registered was almost twice the climatological average overall during the flowering period), which were not used in formulating the models. A highly satisfactory classification and good forecasting results were achieved with the first and second approaches respectively. The estimated line taking into account temperature and a calm S–SW wind, corresponds to the real line recorded during 2001, which gives us an idea of the proposed models validity.     

Trends and threshold exceedances analysis of airborne pollen concentrations in Metropolitan Santiago Chile

Pollen is one of the primary causes of allergic rhinoconjunctivitis in urban centers. In the present study, the concentrations of 39 different pollens in the Santiago de Chile metropolitan area over the period 2009–2013 are characterized. The pollen was monitored daily using Burkard volumetric equipment. The contribution of each type of pollen and the corresponding time trends are evaluated. The concentrations of the pollens are compared with the established threshold levels for the protection of human health. The results show that the total amount of pollen grains originating from trees, grasses, weeds and indeterminate sources throughout the period of the study was 258,496 grains m-3, with an annual average of 51,699 ± 3,906 grains m-3 year-1. The primary source of pollen is Platanus orientalis, which produces 61.8% of the analyzed pollen. Grass pollen is the third primary component of the analyzed pollen, with a contribution of 5.82%. Among the weeds, the presence of Urticacea (3.74%) is remarkable. The pollination pattern of the trees is monophasic, and the grasses have a biphasic pattern. The trends indicate that the total pollen and tree pollen do not present a time trend that is statistically significant throughout the period of the study, whereas the grass pollen and weed pollen concentrations in the environment present a statistically significant decreasing trend. The cause of this decrease is unclear. The pollen load has doubled over the past decade. When the observed concentrations of the pollens were compared with the corresponding threshold levels, the results indicated that over the period of the study, the pollen concentrations were at moderate, high and very high levels for an average of 293 days per year. Systematic counts of the pollen grains are an essential method for diagnosing and treating patients with pollinosis and for developing forestation and urban planning strategies.     

Vertical variation in urticaceae airborne pollen concentration

The pollen contents at different heights (1.5 and 15 m) of species of the Urticaceae family have been studied by sampling with Hirst type volumetric samplers. In order to achieve this, the two pollen types belonging to this family have been treated separately,Urtica urens-Parietaria sp. on the one hand andUrtica membranacea on the other, the latter having a smaller pollen grain. The results show that meteorological factors are bound to influence the behaviour of both these types of pollen in relation to height. With damp weather the pollen contents vary very slightly at different heights while when the weather is dry and calm, differences in pollen content at different heights become more significant. Nevertheless, when the atmosphere is stratified, the behaviour of each pollen type is different. The results show that, for most of the months considered, there is a higher pollen content ofU. membranacea at upper heights, whileU. urens-Parietaria sp. has higher levels of pollen content at a lower height. High temperatures, absence of rain and calm weather conditions favour the presence of convective phenomena which in turn create a favourable atmosphere for the vertical transportation of the small pollen grains ofU. membranacea, which are better represented in the samplers placed at 15 m.     

A new adhesive for airborne pollen sampling in Spain

The use of a double-sided self-adhesive tapefor pollen trapping could offer some advantagesover traditional adhesives, manually applied tothe Melinex tape of a Hirst-type spore trap,since variation in terms of adhesiveapplication is nil and additional effort inapplying the adhesive is avoided. Nevertheless,its efficiency with respect to the standardadhesives must be tested. In Cordoba (southwestSpain), the Spanish Aerobiology Network Centreperformed a series of comparative studies andrecommended the use of a silicone fluid as anadhesive. This paper compares the efficiency ofa double-sided self-adhesive tape (3M) withsilicone fluid as adhesive. Sampling wascarried out using a Hirst type 7-day spore traplocated 15 m above ground level. A Melinex tapecoated with silicone fluid covered one half ofthe weekly drum; the other half was coveredwith 3M tape that included the adhesive. It iswidely reported that the physicalcharacteristics of silicone fluid do not varywith temperature (Galán andDomínguez-Vilches, 1997), but this studyshowed that 3M efficiency did vary withtemperature. The results revealed that 3M tapewas less efficacious at low temperatures, whileat high temperatures it becomes stickier. Incontrast, silicone fluid does not vary withtemperature. The efficiency of 3M tape alsoseems to be negatively influenced by rain.     

Influence of meteorological parameters on Olea flowering date and airborne pollen concentration in four regions of Portugal

For calculating the total annual Olea pollen concentration, the onset of the main pollen season and the peak pollen concentration dates, using data from 1998 to 2004, predictive models were developed using multiple regression analysis. Four Portuguese regions were studied: Reguengos de Monsaraz, Valença do Douro, Braga and Elvas. The effect of some meteorological parameters such as temperature and precipitation on Olea spatial and temporal airborne pollen distribution was studied. The best correlations were found when only the pre‐peak period was used, with thermal parameters (maximum temperature) showing the highest correlation with airborne pollen distribution. Independent variables, selected by regression analysis for the predictive models, with the greatest influence on the Olea main pollen season features were accumulated number of days with rain and rainfall in the previous autumn, and temperatures (average and minimum) from January through March. The models predict 59 to 99% of the total airborne pollen concentration recorded and the initial and peak concentration dates of the main Olea pollen season.     

Atmospheric pollen season in Zagreb (Croatia) and its relationship with temperature and precipitation

The number of individuals allergic to plant pollen has recently been on a constant increase, especially in large cities and industrial areas. Therefore, monitoring of airborne pollen types and concentrations during the pollen season is of the utmost medical importance. The research reported in this paper aims to determine the beginning, course and end of the pollen season for the plants in the City of Zagreb, to identify allergenic plants, and to assess the variation in airborne pollen concentration as a function of temperature and precipitation changes for the year 2002. A volumetric Hirst sampler was used for airborne pollen sampling. Qualitative and quantitative pollen analysis was performed under a light microscope (magnification ×400). In the Zagreb area, 12 groups of highly allergenic plants (alder, hazel, cypress, birch, ash, hornbeam, grasses, elder, nettles, sweet chestnut, artemisia and ambrosia) were identified. Birch pollen predominated in spring, the highest concentrations being recorded in February and March. Grass pollen prevailed in May and June, and pollen of herbaceous plants of the genus Urtica (nettle) and of ambrosia in July, August and September. Air temperature was mostly higher or considerably higher than the annual average in those months, which resulted in a many days with high and very high airborne pollen concentrations. The exception was April, when these concentrations were lower because of high levels of precipitation. This also held for the first half of August and the second half of September. Pollen-sensitive individuals were at high risk from February till October because of the high airborne pollen concentrations, which only showed a transient decrease when the temperature fell or there was precipitation.     

A statistical approach to bioclimatic trend detection in the airborne pollen records of Catalonia (NE Spain)

Airborne pollen records are a suitable indicator for the study of climate change. The present work focuses on the role of annual pollen indices for the detection of bioclimatic trends through the analysis of the aerobiological spectra of 11 taxa of great biogeographical relevance in Catalonia over an 18-year period (1994–2011), by means of different parametric and non-parametric statistical methods. Among others, two non-parametric rank-based statistical tests were performed for detecting monotonic trends in time series data of the selected airborne pollen types and we have observed that they have similar power in detecting trends. Except for those cases in which the pollen data can be well-modeled by a normal distribution, it is better to apply non-parametric statistical methods to aerobiological studies. Our results provide a reliable representation of the pollen trends in the region and suggest that greater pollen quantities are being liberated to the atmosphere in the last years, specially by Mediterranean taxa such as Pinus, Total Quercus and Evergreen Quercus, although the trends may differ geographically. Longer aerobiological monitoring periods are required to corroborate these results and survey the increasing levels of certain pollen types that could exert an impact in terms of public health.     

Annual pollen spectrum in the air of Palma de Mallorca (Balearic Islands, Spain)

This aeropalynological study documented the pollen of 13 taxa with the highest concentration in the air of Palma de Mallorca during the years 2004–2010, using a Hirst-type volumetric spore trap. The taxa were Cupressaceae, Olea europaea, Platanus hispanica, Pinus spp., Parietaria judaica, Urtica membranacea, Quercus ilex, Poaceae, Chenopodiaceae/Amaranthaceae, Plantago spp., Castanea sativa, Pistacia lentiscus and Betula spp. These taxa accounted for 91.85 % of the total annual pollen recorded during the period. The mean annual pollen index was 20,027. The highest pollen counts occurred in February–June, representing 88.74 % of the annual total collected. Every year, there was a substantial increase in the concentration and types of pollen from March to May, followed by a decrease from July to January. The maximum annual total pollen count was recorded in 2005 with 25,870 and the minimum in 2009 with 14,726. The mean daily average pollen concentration count showed a declining trend over the study period. With respect to seasonal phases analysed, the later phase of the pollen season is more variable than the beginning. To observe the overall dynamics of the different pollen types better, a pollen calendar was established for Palma de Mallorca. The pollen calendar had typical Mediterranean features and is a useful tool for allergological and botanical awareness.     

Effects of meteorological parameters and plantdistribution on Chenopodiaceae-Amaranthaceae, Quercus and Olea airborne pollen concentrationsin the atmosphere of Cartagena (Spain)

We have studied the effects of various meteorologicalparameters and plant distribution on the airborneconcentrations of three different pollen types:Chenopodiaceae-Amaranthaceae, Quercus and Olea, in the city of Cartagena, situated in SouthwestEurope. The aerobiological study has been carried outfrom March 1993 to March 1997, using a Hirst-typeLanzoni 2000 trap, situated on the roof of the citytrain station. Meteorological data were supplied bythe Environmental Service of Cartagena's Town Hall.Daily pollen concentrations were standardised.Correlation analysis showed the importance ofmeteorological data on airborne pollen concentrations.On the other hand, ANOVA analyses depicted theinfluence of vegetation distribution in relation tosampler location and wind directions. Finally,multiple regression analyses allowed us to developcorrelation models for the three different pollentypes considered, accounting for 32%(Chenopodiaceae-Amaranthaceae), 19% (Quercus),and 26% (Olea) of the variation in the airbornepollen concentration.     

Risk of pollen allergy in Nerja (southern Spain): a pollen calendar

An aeropalynological study was carried out in the atmosphere of the city of Nerja (southern Spain) during a period of 4 years (2000–2003), using a Hirst type volumetric pollen trap. An annual pollen index of 59,750 grains, on average, was obtained with 80–85% of the total pollen recorded from February to May, with Pinus, Olea, Urticaceae, Cupressaceae, Quercus and Poaceae being the principal pollen producers in abundance order. A total of 29 pollen types that reached a 10-day mean equal to or greater than 1 grain of pollen per m³ of air is reflected in a pollen calendar. The results were compared with those obtained for nearby localities and a correlation analysis was made between the daily fluctuations of the main pollen types and total pollen, and meteorological parameters (temperature, rainfall and hours of sun). The daily, monthly and annual values reached by the most important pollen types from an allergenic point of view (Olea, Urticaceae and Poaceae) confirms Nerja as a high-risk locality for the residents and the numerous tourists who visit the area.