A comparative study on the airborne fungi in Athens,Greece, by viable and non-viable sampling methods

Airborne fungi were studied in the city of Athens using two complementary methods in which 136 concurrent samplings were carried out during the 12-month period from January until December 1998. A portable Burkard air sampler for agar plates was used for trapping the culturable portion of the mycobiota. Nineteen genera of fungi were identified and assessed in terms of total numbers and fluctuations in concentration (Alternaria, Arthrinium, Aspergillus, Aureobasidium, Botrytis, Chrysonilia, Cladosporium, Drechslera, Epicoccum, Fusarium, Mucor, Nigrospora, Paecilomyces, Penicillium, Rhizopus, Sclerotinia, Scopulariopsis, Trichoderma and Ulocladium), with the exception of those included in the Sphaeropsidales, the yeasts, and the non-sporulating fungi, which were counted as groups. A volumetric Burkard air sampler for glass slides was operating simultaneously for detecting the total mycobiota, including the non-culturable and the non-viable portion. Ascospores, basidiospores, spores of Myxomycetes, Ustilaginales, Uredinales and Erysiphales, teliospores of Puccinia, as well as conidia of the genera Curvularia, Helminthosporium, Periconia, Pestalotiopsis, Pithomyces, Polythrincium, Stachybotrys, Stemphylium and Torula were also recorded. Only seven of the genera were recovered by both samplers. The total numbers of fungal spores, which had a maximum concentration of 3,175 spores/m³, as well as the spore concentrations of the genera Cladosporium (2,565 spores/m³) and Alternaria (280 spores/m³) were underestimated by the viable method (2,435 CFU/m³ for the total, 2,169 CFU/m³ for Cladosporium and 180 CFU/m³ for Alternaria). The non-viable method fails to resolve the identification of the genera Penicillium and Aspergillus, which are major components of the airborne mycobiota (1,068 CFU/m³ and 204 CFU/m³, respectively) based on recovery by the viable method.     

Fungi in the indoor environment of flour mill in Lucknow

Forty species of fungi were recovered from the indoor air of flour mills by exposing petri plates containing potato dextrose, czapek-dox, and sabouraud agar media for 5 minutes. A rotorod sampler was used. The fungal flora of the nearby outdoor environment was also studied for comparison. Species of genus Aspergillus dominated in the mills, being represented by 16 species including one ascosporic species. Other species were of genera Cladosporium and Fusarium. Variations in the fungal population in different months of the survey year were also observed.

Identifiable fungal spores recovered using the rotorod sampler were Alternaria (17% occurrence), Curvularia lunata (10.6%), C. letramera (10%), Cladosporium (19%), Drechslera sp. (9%), Epicoccum sp. (5%), Pithomyces sp. (3%), Nigrospora sp. (10.5%), Stemphylium sp. (4.5%) and Torula sp. (4.5%). Mycelial fragments and unidentifiable spores were also seen in abundance.

Varying allergic responses of patients tested intradermally for the antigens of six Aspergilli, viz., Aspergillus flavus, A. fumigatus, A. melleus, A. niger, A. niveus, and A. terreus were also recorded.     

Variation in fungal spore concentrations of selected taxa associated

The aim of the study was to determine seasonal variation in concentrations of selected fungal spore types due to meteorological parameters. The presence of spores of thirteen taxa: Cladosporium, Torula, Alternaria, Botrytis, Epicoccum, Stemphylium, Ganoderma, Erysiphales, Entomophthora, Drechslera type, Didymella, Polythrincium and Pithomyces was recorded in Cracow using a Burkard trap. The majority of selected taxa belong to the anamorphic fungi group, the others to Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes and Zygomycetes. Fungal spores were present in the air in large numbers throughout the summer with the highest levels being reached in June, July and August although their highest concentrations differed with time. For most of the studied spore types: Botrytis, Ganoderma, Alternaria, Epicoccum, Torula, Drechslera type, Polythrincium, Stemphylium and Pithomyces the peak period was recorded in August. Didymella and Entomophthora spores reached their highest concentrations in July while concentrations of Erysiphales and Cladosporium spores were highest in June. Multiple regression analysis was performed for two seasonal periods: pre-peak and post-peak. In the pre-peak period concentrations of 10 spore types: Cladosporium, Botrytis, Epicoccum, Stemphylium, Drechslera type, Pithomyces, Didymella, Erysiphales, Ganoderma and Entomophthora were strongest influenced by minimum temperature while Alternaria, Polythrincium and Torula by maximum temperature (significance level of α=0.05). During the post-peak period the most important factor affecting variation in concentrations of Botrytis, Polythrincium, Didymella, Erysiphales, Ganoderma and Entomophthora spores was the minimum temperature. For Alternaria, Cladosporium, Epicoccum and Torula the maximum temperature appeared to be the most influential, whereas for Drechslera type, Stemphylium and Pithomyces it was sunshine. All correlations between spore concentration, minimum and maximum temperature and sunshine were significant (significance level of α=0.05), and positive although the percentage of explained variation (R²) was low.     

Aeromycoflora in the Central Milk Dairy of Calcutta, India

Intramural aeromycological survey was performed at the Central Milk Dairy, Calcutta, covering eight locations within the Dairyusing Burkard personal volumetric air sampler. The locations were butter cold storage (−2 °C), cold store (8 °C), packaging section (23 °C), milk processing section (24 °C), reconstituent of skimmed milk (24 °C), quality control lab (25 °C), raw milk reception (28 °C) and loading dock (26 °C). A number of fungal spores, conidia and mycelia were recorded in different rooms: the highest spore quantity was recorded in the packaging section (23 °C) and the minimum at the butter cold store (−2 °C). The dominant spores consisted of Aspergillus niger, A flavus,Cladosporium sp., Fusarium sp., Curvularia sp.,Alternaria sp., Torula sp., Myrotheciumsp., Helminthosporium sp., Periconia sp.,Nigrospora sp. and Pithomyces sp. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Airborne fungal spores in urban and rural environments in Poland

The concentrations of airborne fungal spores were measured during 2001–2002 in two sites in Poland—one in the city and the other in the countryside. The sites differed in habitat characteristics, such as urbanisation level, vegetation and microclimate. The aim of the study was to determine if, and in which way, land use type would affect spore occurrence. The volumetric method was used, and ten easily identifiable spore types were sampled and anyalysed: Alternaria, Botrytis, Cladosporium, Epiccocum, Ganoderma, Pithomyces, Polythrincium, Stemphylium, Torula and Drechslera. The season of spore occurrence was determined using the 90% method. The fungal spores studied were very frequent in the air (in most instances at a frequency higher than 50%). The most common spores were those of Cladosporium, with a frequency range of 83.1–90.5%. In both years the proportion of Cladosporium spores was statistically significantly higher in the city. In both 2001 and 2002 the total seasonal sum of all the spores was higher in the countryside than in the city as was the Seasonal Fungal Index (SFI) values and average concentrations of Botrytis, Ganoderma and Torula. These latter three genera are usually represented as pathogens of plants. The mean spore concentrations of most taxa were significantly higher in the rural environment. Correlation coefficients between daily concentrations at both sites for most of the taxa studied were significant, but with lower correlation values between variables. Such results indicate that the values from the sites are weakly interdependent. The study confirms that land use type may very likely have an impact on the course of spore occurrence, the mean daily concentrations of spores as well as SFI values.     

Effects of weather conditions on selected airborne fungal spores in the southern part of the state of Enugu,Nigeria

A study of airborne fungal spore was carried out at nine locations in the southern part of the state of Enugu, Nigeria, from March 2005 to February 2006. The aim of the study was to ascertain the variations in selected fungal spore types at the sites owing to weather conditions. The variation in airborne fungal spores of 14 taxa was studied using modified Tauber pollen traps including Alternaria, Corynespora, Curvularia, Drechslera type, Endophragmiella, Botryodiplodia, Ganoderma, Gliomastrix, Nigrospora, Pithomyces, Spegazzinia, Sporidesmium, Tetraploa and Ustilago. The frequency of the spore types recorded showed considerable variation. The highest spore counts were recorded in July, June and October. The highest numbers of fungal spores were recorded during the rainy season (June–October) to early dry season (November–December). The peak of occurrence of most selected fungal spore types was July. The highest percentages of fungal spores were documented at the recording stations Mgbowo Junction, UNTH Ituku Ozalla and Oji River Express Junction. Spearman’s correlation analyses were performed for the monthly amounts of the fungal spore types and monthly meteorological factors. The numbers of Curvularia, Nigrospora and Sporidesmium was significantly correlated with relative humidity, while those of Endophragmiella, Pithomyces and Nigrospora were significantly correlated with temperature. A significant correlation was also found between the number of Nigrospora spores and light intensity and Sporidesmium spores and wind velocity. Relative humidity and temperature seem to be the most important weather conditions affecting the frequency of the selected spore types in the atmosphere.     

Airborne pollen and spores on the Arctic island of Jan Mayen

A survey of airspora collected on Jan Mayen, an isolated North Atlantic island (71°N, 8°30′W), using a Burkard seven-day volumetric trap from 24th April to 31th August, 1988, revealed only very small concentrations. A total of 10 different pollen types were recorded, constituting a seasonal sum of 29 pollen grains. The local pollen season was confined to July, with Oxyria digna and Salix as the most numerous pollen types recorded. Exotic pollen grains, namely Betula, Pinus and Castanea type, were recorded in three periods during June and July. Studies of back trajectories indicate North America and/or Iceland and Greenland as possible source areas for the Betula pollen. There were more diatoms than pollen in the local airspora. Fungal spores mainly occurred in late July and August. Cladosporium constituted less than 5% of the total seasonal sum of fungal spores, while basidiospores contributed nearly 12%. The highest diurnal average of Cladosporium was 27 spores m^?3 air. The seasonal maximum of unidentified fungal spores reached a diurnal average of 639 spores m^?1 air on 27th August.     

Airborne pollen and fungal spores in Garki,Abuja (North-Central Nigeria)

The ambient atmosphere is dominated with pollen and spores, which trigger allergic reactions and diseases and impact negatively on human health. A survey of pollen and fungal spores constituents of the atmosphere of Garki, Abuja (North-Central Nigeria) was carried out for 1 year (June 1, 2011–May 31, 2012). The aim of the study was to determine the prevalence and abundance of pollen and fungal spores in the atmosphere and their relationship with meteorological parameters. Airborne samples were trapped using modified Tauber-like pollen trap, and the recipient solutions were subjected to acetolysis. Results revealed the abundance of fungal spores, pollen, fern spores, algal cysts and diatoms in decreasing order of dominance. The atmosphere was qualitatively and quantitatively dominated by pollen during the period of late rainy/harmattan season than the rainy season. Numerous fungal spores were trapped throughout the sampling periods among which Alternaria spp., Fusarium spp., Cladosporium spp. and Curvularia spp. dominated. These fungi have been implicated in allergic diseases and are dermatophytic, causing diverse skin diseases. Other pathogenic fungi found in the studied aeroflora were Dreschlera spp., Helminthosporium spp., Torula spp., Pithomyces spp., Tetraploa spp., Nigrospora ssp., Spadicoides spp., Puccinia spp. and Erysiphe graminis. Total pollen and fungal spores counts do not show significant correlation with meteorological parameters.     

The variation in spore concentrations of selected fungal taxa associated with weather conditions in Szczecin,Poland, 2004–2006

The investigation of airborne fungal spore concentrations was carried out in Szczecin, Poland between 2004 and 2006. The objective of the studies was to determine a seasonal variation in concentrations of selected fungal spore types due to meteorological parameters. The presence of spores of ten taxa: Cladosporium, Ganoderma, Alternaria, Epicoccum, Didymella, Torula, Dreschlera‐type, Polythrincium, Stemphylium and Pithomyces was recorded in Szczecin using a volumetric method (Hirst type). Fungal spores were present in the air in large numbers in summer. The highest concentrations were noted in June, July and August. The peak period was recorded in August for most of the studied spore types: Ganoderma, Alternaria, Epicoccum, Dreschlera‐type, Polythrincium and Stemphylium. Cladosporium and Didymella spores reached their highest concentrations in July while concentrations of Torula were highest in May and Pithomyces in September. Multiple regression analysis was performed for three fungal seasons: 2004, 2005, and 2006. Spore concentrations were positively correlated with minimum temperature for seven spore types in 2004, for five spore types in 2005, and for eight spore types in 2006 (significance level of α = 0.05). Some spore types are also significantly correlation among their concentrations, pressure, relative humidity and rain. Minimum temperature appeared to be the most influential factor for most spore types.     

Airborne fungi in an Italian rice mill

Summary Studies employing volumetric spore trap (VSP) and gravity settling culture plates (GSC) were conducted in order to analyse the air spora of a rice mill at Pavia, Italy, from October-December 1988. Results revealed a variety of fungal spores belonging to different genera and including recognized rice pathogenic fungi. The most frequent genera by GSC method includedAcremonium, Alternaria, Aspergillus, Aureobasidium, Cladosporium, Epicoccum, Fusarium, Helminthosporium, Mucor, Nigrospora, Penicillium, Rhizopus, Trichoderma, Trichothecium, and some unidentified fungi. Environmental assessment of fungal spores by VSP revealed that the most prevalent fungi were:Alternaria, Cladosporium, Epicoccum, Helminthosporium, Nigrospora, Pyricularia, Tilletia and hyaline, dark and coloured types of ascospores and basidiospores. Airborne fungal spore concentrations were particularly high (5,000–6,000 spores/m³) in the rooms of the rice mill where the initial stages of rough rice transformation take place, and dropped to 2,500 spores/m³ in the last room, where workers are. During a temporary interruption of the working processes, air spora concentration dropped below 1,000 spores/m³.Cladosporium, Epicoccum andNigrospora spores were predominant in all subdivisions of the indoor environments of the rice mill.     

Airborne fungal spores in a sawmill environment in Palakkad District, Kerala, India

Concentration of airborne fungal spores inindoor and outdoor environments of a sawmill in Palakkad district of Kerala, India was studied with Burkard Personal Slide Sampler from January to December 1997. Total spore concentration in the indoor and outdoor showed a 3:2 ratio. Higher spore count was observed in indoor in January and in outdoor in October. Thirty three fungal spore types were identified from the indoor and twenty six from the outdoor. Aspergillus/Penicillium, Cladosporium, Nigrospora, Ganoderma, `other basidiospores' and ascospores were the dominant components of the airspora. Aspergillus/Penicillium, the most dominant spore type in the indoor contributed 51.19% and Cladosporium, the most dominant spore type in the outdoor contributed 44.75% of the total spores. The study revealed high prevalence of predominantly allergenic fungal spores in the sawmill environment.     

Monitoring of anamorphic fungal spores in Madeira region (Portugal), 2003–2008

Seven years of aeromycological study was performed in the city of Funchal with the purpose to determine the anamorphic spore content of this region and its relationship to meteorological factors. The sampling was carried out with a Hirst-type volumetric spore trap following well-established guidelines. A total of 17,586 anamorphic fungal spores were recorded during the studied period, attaining an annual average concentration of 2931 spores m^?3. Anamorphic fungal spores were observed throughout the year, although the major peaks were registered during spring (April–June) and autumn period (September–November). The lowest spore levels were recorded between December and February months. Over 14 taxa of anamorphic fungal spores were observed with Cladosporium being the most prevalent fungal type accounting for 78 % of the total conidiospores. The next in importance was Alternaria (5.4 %), Fusarium (4.7 %), Torula (3.9 %) and Botrytis (1.9 %). Temperature was the meteorological parameter that favoured the most release and dispersal of the conidiospores, whereas rainfall revealed a negative effect. Despite the low concentration levels found in our region, the majority of the fungal types identified are described as potential aeroallergens. This study provides the seasonal variation of the conidiospores and the periods when the highest counts may be expected, representing a preventive tool in the allergic sensitization of the population.     

Airborne fungi monitoring in Santiago, Chile

Fungal airborne spores were studied from September 1996throughout August 1997 in Santiago, Chile. Total concentrationsfluctuated between 308 and 10,334 spores/m³/day withan annual mean of 2,154 per m³, the highest dispersion beingduring April and May. Forty-five percent of total fungal content wasfound in autumn. Thirteen genera and 3 other spore types wereidentified. Cladosporium, the most abundant genera in ouratmosphere, contributed with 70.9% of the total fungi counts andreached an annual mean of 1,527 spores/m³/day, itshighest frequency being in autumn. Alternaria appeared as thesecond most frequent genera, with an annual mean of 40spores/m³/day, representing a 1.9% of theannual fungal catch. Altogether, Stemphylium, Torula, Epicoccum,Ganoderma, Helminthosporium, Chaetomiun, Pleospora and othersreached relative frequencies of 0.5% or less. It is concludedthat fungi are present in Santiago's atmosphere all year round, some ofthem with a clear seasonality.     

Exposure to airborne microorganisms,hyphal fragments,and pollen in a field of organically grown strawberries

Many working environments are predisposed for larger than average amounts of fungi and other microorganisms often due to organic material being handled. From 2003 to 2007, the area used for strawberry production in Denmark increased by 62%. The purpose of this study was to determine the levels of exposure to microorganisms, endotoxin, (1→3)-β-d-glucan (β-glucan), and pollen in a field of strawberries. The study was carried out in eastern Denmark from the middle of June to the beginning of August 2008. The strawberries were grown organically, and microbiological pest control agents (MPCAs) were applied during this and former growth seasons. In order to measure exposure to inhalable bioaerosol components, we used stationary filter samplers. Bioaerosol sampling was performed during 4 working days, and a total of 57 samplings were performed. The filters were analysed for contents of fungi, MPCAs, endotoxin, β-glucan, and pollen. The mean exposure was 6,154 CFU Cladosporium sp. m⁻³, 1.0 × 10⁵ fungal spores m⁻³, 4.1 × 10⁴ hyphal fragments m⁻³, 5.8 × 10³ pollen m⁻³, 57.3 ng β-glucan m⁻³, and 8.9 endotoxin units (EU) m⁻³. A significant and positive correlation was found between β-glucan and fungal spores and between CFU of Cladosporium sp. and CFU of fungi. We selected specifically for Metarhizium anisopliae, Beauveria bassiana, and the applied MPCAs Trichoderma harzianum, T. polysporum, and Bacillus thuringiensis but found none of these species. In conclusion, our study shows that berry pickers in this organic strawberry field were potentially subjected to higher levels of fungal spores, Cladosporium sp., hyphal fragments, pollen, and thus also β-glucan than is usually seen in outdoor air. Exposure to MPCAs was not seen. The exposure to endotoxin was only slightly higher than e.g. in a town.     

Airborne fungal spores in the coastal plain of Israel: A preliminary survey

Airborne spores were monitored during the years 1993–1995 in three cities along the coastal plain of Israel: Ramat Gan, Tel Aviv (Ramat Aviv) and Haifa. Seasonal fluctuations in the concentration of airborne spores were recorded. The following genera of fungi were identified:Alternaria, Cladosporium, Coprinus, Curvularia, Drechslera. Diplococcum, Epicoccum, Fusarium, Leptosphaeria, Pithomyces, Puccinia, Sphacelotheca, Stemphylium andUstilago. Unidentified spores were very rare and in negligible numbers. The dominant airborne fungal spores wereCladosporium andAlternaria. The monthly variations in airborne spores, observed among the three cities, seem to be rather minor. The recorded levels of airborne spores were below the concentrations that are accepted as threshold levels for provocation of clinical responses.     

Vegetation: A source of air fungal bio-contaminant

Airborne fungal counts and types were examined in three selected regions in Egypt. Two of the sampling sites are rural areas, one cultivated with chamomile and the second with vegetable. The third site is located in an urban area. A sedimentation method was used to isolate airborne fungal spores. Airborne fungal spore counts averaged 71\pm 19, 64\pm 14 and 175\pm 79 cfu/p/h in the urban, vegetable and chamomile growing areas, respectively. A total of 1486 fungal colonies belonging to 32 genera were identified. Alternaria (7.5–59.9%), Aspergillus (11.2–38.9%), Penicillium (9.5–15%) and Cladosporium (7.78–17.5%) were the predominant fungal genera found in all sampling sites. Alternaria (42–59.9%) and Aspergillus (38.9%) were the common fungal genera in the cultivated and urban areas, respectively. Vegetation is considered the main source of Alternaria, whereas Aspergillus, Penicillium and Cladosporium are related to local microenvironments and urbanization. Acremonium, Aureobasidium, Botrytis, Beauveria, Chlamydomyces, Chalara, Curvularia, Fusarium, Geotrichum, Trichothecium, Oidiodendron, Scopulariopsis, Spicaria, Stachybotrys chartarum, Torula and Thamnidium, were only detected in low percentages (0.11–1.8%) in the cultivated areas. Vegetation adds different fungal types into the air and their numbers vary according to vegetation type and weather conditions. Airborne fungal counts increased with temperature and decreased with rainfall and relative humidity. Airborne fungal spores have many implications in the spread of human and plant diseases. The presence of fungal spores in air, in spite of their counts, may raise arguments about their role in health complaints in a particular region, „i.e., the fungal concentration may be low but the predominant aeroallergen may be dangerous”.     

Aeroallergens in northern and southern provinces of Thailand

An aeroallergen survey in two provinces, Chiangmai in the northern and Songkhla in the southern part of Thailand which are 1 500 km apart, was done in 1986 and 1987 using a rotorod sampler. The five most common pollen types and mold spores were: Chiangmai: Mold spores: Cladosporium, rust, Fusarium, Nigrospora, 1-celled spore. Pollen grains: Mimosa, wild grasses, Urticaceae, Cyperaceae, tetrad pollen. Songkhla: Mold spores: Cladosporium, rust, Nigrospora, Papularia, 1-celled spore. Pollen grains: Casuarina, Mimosa, Urticaceae, Cyperaceae, wild grass. There were definite differences in the amount and frequency of occurrences of aeroallergens between these two provinces. Furthermore, some specific pollen and mold spores, such as tetrads and Mimosa pollen, were found only in Chiangmai, and Casuarina pollen and Papularia spores only in Songkhla. These findings might be caused by the differences in geography, plantation and meteorological data.     

Airspora Studies Over a Rice (High Yielding Variety) Field in Rabi Season in the State of West Bengal, India

Aeromycoflora studies over a paddy field in West Bengal during rabi season were initiated with the help of culture plate exposure technique for two consecutive crop seasons. The total CFUs was found to vary with growth stages, since the null hypothesis about the number of spores at different stages got rejected at 5% level of significance. A more or less uniform spore count was recorded up to maximum vegetative growth stages after that there were a gradual rise in count with peaks (214 and 444CFUs, respectively) during harvesting of the two crop seasons. A number of fungi was isolated.. The dominant genus identified was Cladosporium which appeared in huge amount in the earlier stages; declined gradually in late stages with the onset of summer showing a seasonal periodicity. Penicillium showed a reverse picture. Its' predominancy was increased with the termination of winter and simultaneously increased with increase in temperature. Curvularia showed no seasonal variation. Alternaria, Fusarium, Helminthosporium and Nigrospora were the phytopathogenic fungi recorded from air; of which Alternaria was the dominant. Alternaria was recorded to be present regularly with peaks at flowering onwards. A species of Alternaria was detected as a virulent disease causing agent in this variety of rice which caused leaf damage to the host plant. It was heavily present at later stages, also confirmed by statistical analysis. Fusarium, Helminthosporium and Nigrospora were found more or less frequently. Fungi failed to sporulate were grouped under sterile forms and were found regularly throughout the period of investigation.     

Estimation of aeromycoflora in jute fields

An air survey of jute fields for two seasons in West Bengal, India, revealed that the total colony forming units (CFUs) varied with time, showing peaks (231 and 483 CFUs, respectively) during harvesting of the crop. The effect of temperature as well as relative humidity is probably not so significant. However, the total rainfall does count. The CFUs are inversely proportional to the total rainfall. In the survey conducted, it was found that the rainfall of 1346.3 mm and 947.1 mm, during the two seasons corresponded to 574 and 1002 CFUs respectively, irrespective of growth phases of the crop. Penicillium and Aspergillus were the most dominant saprophytes followed by Curvularia and Cladosporium in the first season, while in 1991 Aspergillus and Curvularia were the most dominant, followed by Cephlalosporium, Penicillium and Cladosporium, along with Pullularia in the mid season. Pathogenic Macrophomina phaseolina causing stem rot disease, although appeared irregularly in the first season, became more frequent in later stages in the second season. Amongst other pathogens Helminthosporium occurred twice and three times in the earlier part of the two crop season, while Alternaria, Nigrospora and Fusarium occurred very occasionally.     

Airborne fungi associated with ornamental plant propagation in greenhouses

The objective was to determine potential exposure to airborne fungi in greenhouses and to characterize the temporal patterns of airborne fungi in relation to environmental conditions. We analyzed air samples collected in two greenhouses. Results showed that the top 5 fungi in greenhouse 1 were Trichoderma, hyphal fragments, Aspergillus/Penicillium-like, Cladosporium, and Botrytis in a descending order. Those in greenhouse 2 were Aspergillus/Penicillium-like, Cladosporium, Botrytis, yeast-like, and hyphal fragments. Maximum concentrations of Trichoderma and total spores in greenhouse 1 were 36,426 and 49,729 spores/m³, respectively. Maximum concentrations of Aspergillus/Penicillium and total spores in greenhouse 2 were 46,961 and 71,037 spores/m³, respectively. Airborne fungal populations fluctuated dramatically within 2 h during work hours, tenfold for Aspergillus/Penicillium, 66-fold for Trichoderma, and sevenfold for total spores. QPCR detected Trichoderma harzianum ranging from 7 to 3,500 conidia E/m³. Aspergillus/Penicillium and Botrytis showed diurnal patterns, but not Trichoderma. Aspergillus/Penicillium and Cladosporium were positively correlated with temperature, relative humidity, dew point, heat index, and light and negatively with air movement and air pressure. Botrytis and Trichoderma were not correlated with the environmental factors. Greenhouse workers were potentially exposed up to 71,037 spores/m³ of airborne fungi.