Group cognitive and behavioural treatment for hypochondriasis.

OBJECTIVE--To assess the feasibility of carrying out group cognitive and behavioural treatment for hypochondriasis in a general hospital setting. DESIGN--Assessment of patients referred for therapy. SETTING--District general hospital. PATIENTS--Six patients aged 35 to 55 (mean 43) years with a mean duration of symptoms of 12 years who fulfilled the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM III-R) criteria for hypochondriasis. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES--Number of visits to their doctors, time spent thinking about illness, and scores on the hospital anxiety and depression scales. RESULTS--The mean number of visits to a doctor fell significantly after treatment (3 before treatment v 0.8 after treatment; p = 0.03) as did the time spent thinking about illness (57.3 v 40.6; p = 0.14). The depression and anxiety scores also fell, although the differences were not significant (depression: 9.5 before v 8.5 after; anxiety: 13 before v 12 after). CONCLUSION--It is feasible to carry out group cognitive and behavioural treatment in patients with hypochondriasis, and controlled studies are now indicated.     

Context is key: A comment on Herczeg et al. 2019

In the last several years, there has been a surge in the number of studies addressing the causes and consequences of among‐individual variation in cognitive ability and behavioural plasticity. Here, we use a recent publication by Herczeg et al. (2019: 32(3), 218–226) to highlight three shortcomings common to this newly emerging field. In their study, Herczeg et al. attempted to link variation in cognitive ability and behavioural plasticity by testing whether selection lines of guppies (Poecilia reticulata) that differ in relative brain size also differ in behavioural plasticity, as might be expected if the costs to plasticity are predominantly derived from the cost of developing large brains. First, residual brain size may not be a suitable proxy for ‘cognitive ability’. Recent work has shown that intraspecific variation in cognitive ability can be better understood by considering variation in the specific brain areas responsible for the relevant behaviours as opposed to whole‐brain mass. Second, the measure of behavioural plasticity, habituation, is unlikely to fulfil the assumptions that plasticity is both adaptive and costly. Finally, we point out several misconceptions regarding animal personality that continue to contribute to the choice of traits that are not well aligned with study objectives. Elucidating the mechanisms underlying among‐individual variation in cognition and behavioural plasticity within populations requires integration between behavioural ecology and comparative cognition, and the study system developed by Herczeg et al. has the potential to provide important mechanistic insights. We hope that by articulating and critically appraising the underlying assumptions that are common in these traditionally separate disciplines, a strong foundation can emerge to allow for more fruitful integration of these fields.     

Human behavioural genetics of cognitive abilities and disabilities

Although neither the genome nor the environment can be manipulated in research on human behaviour, some of the new tools of molecular genetics can be brought to bear on human behavioural disorders (e.g. cognitive disabilities) and quantitative traits (e.g. cognitive abilities). The inability to manipulate the human genome experimentally has had the positive effect of focusing attention on naturally occuring genetic variation responsible for behavioural differences among individuals in all their complex multifactorial splendour. Genes in such complex multiple-gene systems are called quantitative trait loci (QTLs), which merge the two worlds of genetic research, quantitative genetics and molecular genetics. Although most genetic research on complex human behaviour has focused on severe mental disorders, cognitive abilities and disabilities may be even more immediately relevant to neuroscience. For example, verbal ability and spatial ability are two of the most heritable cognitive abilities, and reading disability is the first behavioural disability for which replicated QTL linkage has been found. The purpose of this essay is to provide an overview of the genetics of cognitive abilities and disabilities as an example of the impending merger of quantitative genetics and molecular genetics in QTL analysis of complex traits.     

Savant skills in autism: psychometric approaches and parental reports

Most investigations of savant skills in autism are based on individual case reports. The present study investigated rates and types of savant skills in 137 individuals with autism (mean age 24 years). Intellectual ability ranged from severe intellectual impairment to superior functioning. Savant skills were judged from parental reports and specified as ‘an outstanding skill/knowledge clearly above participant''s general level of ability and above the population norm’. A comparable definition of exceptional cognitive skills was applied to Wechsler test scores—requiring a subtest score at least 1 standard deviation above general population norms and 2 standard deviations above the participant''s own mean subtest score. Thirty-nine participants (28.5%) met criteria for either a savant skill or an exceptional cognitive skill: 15 for an outstanding cognitive skill (most commonly block design); 16 for a savant skill based on parental report (mostly mathematical/calculating abilities); 8 met criteria for both a cognitive and parental rated savant skill. One-third of males showed some form of outstanding ability compared with 19 per cent of females. No individual with a non-verbal IQ below 50 met criteria for a savant skill and, contrary to some earlier hypotheses, there was no indication that individuals with higher rates of stereotyped behaviours/interests were more likely to demonstrate savant skills.     

Ethological validation and the assessment of anxiety-like behaviours: methodological comparison of classical analyses and structural approaches

The research on emotional reactivity usually implies the use of standardised behavioural tests that provide a quick idea of the effect of a treatment on the reactivity of subjects to potentially dangerous situations. Many validity criteria have been considered to evaluate these tests. This validity concept supports the idea that animals' behaviour in these tests model human anxiety. Generally, those criteria repeatedly labelled as "ethological validation" refer to the analogy between animals and human in the meaning of the test situation. Although the content of the ethological validation concept is heterogeneous, it is steadily related to a fixed interpretation of the behavioural items produced in a given experimental setting. The basic assumption of such reasoning is that the behavioural items would always be expressed in the same behavioural context whatever the subject, its gender, strain or species, thoroughly asserting a predefined subjective state. Using multivariate and textual analysis, we found evidence that the "ethological validation" recourse to an a priori interpretation for a given behavioural variable may be deceptive. We defend the idea that the meaning of a behavioural variable should be restricted to the general context where it arose. Theoretical propositions and methodological options are discussed.     

A New Criterion for Demarcating Life from Non-Life

Criteria for demarcating life from non-life are important for deciding whether new candidate systems, either discovered extraterrestrially or constructed in the laboratory, are genuinely alive or not. They are also important for understanding the origin of life and its evolution. Current criteria are either too restrictive or too extensive. The new criterion proposed here poses that a system is living when it is capable of utilizing active causation, at evolutionary or behavioural timescales. Active causation is produced when the organism uses an estimate of its own Darwinian fitness to modulate the variance of stochasticity that drives hereditary or behavioural changes. The changes are subsequently fed back to the fitness estimate and used in the next cycle of a feedback loop. The ability to use a self-estimated fitness in this way is an evolved property of the organism, and the way in which fitness is estimated is therefore controlled and stabilized by Darwinian evolution. The hereditary and behavioural trajectories resulting from this mechanism combine predictability with unpredictability, and the mechanism produces a form of self-directed agency in living organisms that is absent from non-living systems.     

Bumble-bee foragers infected by a gut parasite have an impaired ability to utilize floral information

Parasitic infection can influence a variety of behavioural mechanisms in animals, but little is known about the effects of infection on the cognitive processes underlying ecologically relevant behaviours. Here, we examined whether parasitic infection alters cognitive aspects of foraging in a social insect, the bumble-bee (Bombus impatiens). In controlled experiments, we assessed the ability of foraging bees to discriminate rewarding from non-rewarding flowers on the basis of colour and odour. We found that natural and experimental infection by a protozoan parasite (Crithidia bombi, which lives exclusively within the gut tract), impaired the ability of foragers to learn the colour of rewarding flowers. Parasitic infection can thus disrupt central nervous system pathways that mediate cognitive processes in bumble-bees and as a consequence, can reduce their ability to monitor floral resources and make economic foraging decisions. It is postulated that this infection-induced change to cognitive function in bumble-bees is the result of communication between immune and nervous systems. Parasitized animals, including invertebrates, can therefore show subtle behavioural changes that are nonetheless ecologically significant and reflect complex mechanisms.     

The evolution of primate general and cultural intelligence

There are consistent individual differences in human intelligence, attributable to a single 'general intelligence' factor, g. The evolutionary basis of g and its links to social learning and culture remain controversial. Conflicting hypotheses regard primate cognition as divided into specialized, independently evolving modules versus a single general process. To assess how processes underlying culture relate to one another and other cognitive capacities, we compiled ecologically relevant cognitive measures from multiple domains, namely reported incidences of behavioural innovation, social learning, tool use, extractive foraging and tactical deception, in 62 primate species. All exhibited strong positive associations in principal component and factor analyses, after statistically controlling for multiple potential confounds. This highly correlated composite of cognitive traits suggests social, technical and ecological abilities have coevolved in primates, indicative of an across-species general intelligence that includes elements of cultural intelligence. Our composite species-level measure of general intelligence, 'primate g(S)', covaried with both brain volume and captive learning performance measures. Our findings question the independence of cognitive traits and do not support 'massive modularity' in primate cognition, nor an exclusively social model of primate intelligence. High general intelligence has independently evolved at least four times, with convergent evolution in capuchins, baboons, macaques and great apes.     

How intelligent is a cephalopod? Lessons from comparative cognition

The soft-bodied cephalopods including octopus, cuttlefish, and squid are broadly considered to be the most cognitively advanced group of invertebrates. Previous research has demonstrated that these large-brained molluscs possess a suite of cognitive attributes that are comparable to those found in some vertebrates, including highly developed perception, learning, and memory abilities. Cephalopods are also renowned for performing sophisticated feats of flexible behaviour, which have led to claims of complex cognition such as causal reasoning, future planning, and mental attribution. Hypotheses to explain why complex cognition might have emerged in cephalopods suggest that a combination of predation, foraging, and competitive pressures are likely to have driven cognitive complexity in this group of animals. Currently, it is difficult to gauge the extent to which cephalopod behaviours are underpinned by complex cognition because many of the recent claims are largely based on anecdotal evidence. In this review, we provide a general overview of cephalopod cognition with a particular focus on the cognitive attributes that are thought to be prerequisites for more complex cognitive abilities. We then discuss different types of behavioural flexibility exhibited by cephalopods and, using examples from other taxa, highlight that behavioural flexibility could be explained by putatively simpler mechanisms. Consequently, behavioural flexibility should not be used as evidence of complex cognition. Fortunately, the field of comparative cognition centres on designing methods to pinpoint the underlying mechanisms that drive behaviours. To illustrate the utility of the methods developed in comparative cognition research, we provide a series of experimental designs aimed at distinguishing between complex cognition and simpler alternative explanations. Finally, we discuss the advantages of using cephalopods to develop a more comprehensive reconstruction of cognitive evolution.     

Effect of a dopamine agonist on working memory in monkeys

Prior to and after pharmacological effect of Agroclavine (a dopamine receptors' agonist) following its per os administration, its optimal dose (5 mg/kg) for cognitive processes was established in monkeys. Psychotropic effect of Agroclavine resulting in cognitive dysfunction manifested itself to a greater of lesser extent in all the experimental animals. Correctness of visual differentiation, probability of refusal to solve a task, time of a correct motor response were assumed as the behavioural criteria. In fact, all the animals revealed absence of any increase in the number of wrong solutions in visual differentiation or spatial choice, although the time of correct morot response and the number of refusal to solve the task mostly increased. The Agroclavine effect was found to be rather variable in respect to different types of visual information. A possible structural-functional organisation of the working memory processes is discussed.     

Behavioural Phenotypes and the Structure of Human Cognition

Human cognitive uniqueness is often defined in terms of cognitive abilities such as introspection, imitation and cooperativeness. However, little is known about how those traits vary in populations or correlate across individuals. Here we test whether those three cognitive domains are correlated manifestations of an underlying factor, analogous to the psychometric ‘g’ factor, or independent ‘behavioural phenotypes’, analogous to the ‘Big-Five’ personality components. We selected eight variables measuring introspection and extraversion, verbal and physical imitation, cooperation and punishment, and evaluated their individual variability, domain-consistency and sub-structuring in a sample of 84 individuals. Results show high variation and limited clustering into three independent ‘behavioural phenotypes’ of introspection, imitation and cooperation. Only one significant correlation was identified (between two measures of extraversion), while other within-domain measures (introspection vs. extraversion, verbal vs. physical imitation, and cooperation vs. punishment) were not associated. Finally, no between-domain association was identified either through correlations or factor analysis. Overall, the results do not lend support to the hypothesis of a general ‘behavioural phenotype’ underlying individual behaviour. The independence of behaviours of introspection, imitation and cooperation may be the reason why individuals are able to adopt different behavioural strategies (combinations of behavioural phenotypes) and play distinct roles in the maintenance of human distinctive features such as hyper-cooperation and cumulative culture.     

Beneficios de la musicoterapia como tratamiento no farmacológico y de rehabilitación en la demencia moderada

An in-depth review is presented the possible benefits of music therapy in relation to the cognitive and/or behavioural level of elderly patients with dementia. We have carried out a systematic review of randomized controlled trials, case-control and pilot studies published from January 2000 to January 2012 using the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, MEDLINE, Dialnet and CSIC. We focused on comparison of music therapy as non-pharmacological therapy, in patients over 65 years of age with moderate dementia, with regular therapeutic and occupational treatment. Ten articles were selected based on the inclusion criteria. The analysis of the results suggest that music Therapy influences the elderly people with dementia in a positive way by improving levels of behavioural and cognitive functioning and social participation.     

Fatal attraction in rats infected with Toxoplasma gondii

We tested the hypothesis that the parasite Toxoplasma gondii manipulates the behaviour of its intermediate rat host in order to increase its chance of being predated by cats, its feline definitive host, thereby ensuring the completion of its life cycle. Here we report that, although rats have evolved anti-predator avoidance of areas with signs of cat presence, T. gondii's manipulation appears to alter the rat's perception of cat predation risk, in some cases turning their innate aversion into an imprudent attraction. The selectivity of such behavioural changes suggests that this ubiquitous parasite subtly alters the brain of its intermediate host to enhance predation rate whilst leaving other behavioural categories and general health intact. This is in contrast to the gross impediments frequently characteristic of many other host parasite systems. We discuss our results in terms of their potential implications both for the epidemiology of toxoplasmosis and the neurological basis of anxiety and cognitive processes in humans and other mammals.     

Ca2+/calmodulin-mediated neurotransmitter release and neurobehavioural deficits following lead exposure

The present study was designed to investigate the effect of in vitro and in vivo lead exposure on calmodulin-mediated neurotransmitter release from synaptic vesicles with a view to explain the mechanism involved in its behavioural effects. It was observed that lead stimulated calmodulin, in terms of its ability to activate cAMP phosphodiesterase, following in vitro and in vivo exposure. Lead was also seen to enhance calmodulin-mediated synaptic vesicle protein phosphorylation. The increase in lead-induced synaptic vesicle protein phosphorylation was accompanied by enhanced release of acetylcholine from synaptic vesicles following in vitro lead exposure by a calmodulin-dependent mechanism. The ability of Ca(2+)/calmodulin to evoke acetylcholine release was reduced in the synaptic vesicles isolated from lead-exposed animals. Concomitantly, the levels of acetylcholine were found to decrease by 37.8% in the lead-treated animals as compared to the controls. The neurochemical alterations following lead exposure were accompanied by neurobehavioural deficits in terms of impaired motor and cognitive functions. The results from the present study clearly suggest that lead exerts its neurotoxic effects by interfering with Ca(2+)/calmodulin-mediated neurotransmitter release that is eventually responsible for behavioural impairment.     

A retrospective analysis of the clinical case records of 'autistic psychopaths' diagnosed by Hans Asperger and his team at the University Children's Hospital,Vienna

To date, it is questionable whether the diagnostic criteria for Asperger syndrome (AS) as stated by ICD-10 or DSM-IV still reflect Asperger's original account of 'autistic psychopathy' (AP) from the 1940s. The present study examined 74 clinical case records of children with AP diagnosed by Hans Asperger and his team at the Viennese Children's Clinic and Asperger's private practice between 1950 and 1986. The characteristic features of the children are outlined, including reasons for referral, parental background, behavioural problems, cognitive functioning, communication and interests. Results show that the patients of Asperger described in our study represent a subgroup of children with very high intellectual functioning, specific circumscribed interests and talents but impaired social, communication and motor skills. Sixty-eight percent of the sample met ICD-10 criteria for AS, while 25% fulfilled the diagnostic criteria for autism. Implications for the diagnosis of AS are discussed.     

Synchronisation effects on the behavioural performance and information dynamics of a simulated minimally cognitive robotic agent

Oscillatory activity is ubiquitous in nervous systems, with solid evidence that synchronisation mechanisms underpin cognitive processes. Nevertheless, its informational content and relationship with behaviour are still to be fully understood. In addition, cognitive systems cannot be properly appreciated without taking into account brain-body- environment interactions. In this paper, we developed a model based on the Kuramoto Model of coupled phase oscillators to explore the role of neural synchronisation in the performance of a simulated robotic agent in two different minimally cognitive tasks. We show that there is a statistically significant difference in performance and evolvability depending on the synchronisation regime of the network. In both tasks, a combination of information flow and dynamical analyses show that networks with a definite, but not too strong, propensity for synchronisation are more able to reconfigure, to organise themselves functionally and to adapt to different behavioural conditions. The results highlight the asymmetry of information flow and its behavioural correspondence. Importantly, it also shows that neural synchronisation dynamics, when suitably flexible and reconfigurable, can generate minimally cognitive embodied behaviour.     

Brain size affects responsiveness in mating behaviour to variation in predation pressure and sex ratio

Despite ongoing advances in sexual selection theory, the evolution of mating decisions remains enigmatic. Cognitive processes often require simultaneous processing of multiple sources of information from environmental and social cues. However, little experimental data exist on how cognitive ability affects such fitness‐associated aspects of behaviour. Using advanced tracking techniques, we studied mating behaviours of guppies artificially selected for divergence in relative brain size, with known differences in cognitive ability, when predation threat and sex ratio was varied. In females, we found a general increase in copulation behaviour in when the sex ratio was female biased, but only large‐brained females responded with greater willingness to copulate under a low predation threat. In males, we found that small‐brained individuals courted more intensively and displayed more aggressive behaviours than large‐brained individuals. However, there were no differences in female response to males with different brain size. These results provide further evidence of a role for female brain size in optimal decision‐making in a mating context. In addition, our results indicate that brain size may affect mating display skill in male guppies. We suggest that it is important to consider the association between brain size, cognitive ability and sexual behaviour when studying how morphological and behavioural traits evolve in wild populations.     

Behavioural flexibility and problem-solving in a tropical lizard

The role of behavioural flexibility in responding to new or changing environmental challenges is a central theme in cognitive ecology. Studies of behavioural flexibility have focused mostly on mammals and birds because theory predicts that behavioural flexibility is favoured in species or clades that exploit a diversity of habitats or food sources and/or have complex social structure, attributes not associated with ectothermic vertebrates. Here, we present the results of a series of experiments designed to test cognitive abilities across multiple cognitive modules in a tropical arboreal lizard: Anolis evermanni. This lizard shows behavioural flexibility across multiple cognitive tasks, including solving a novel motor task using multiple strategies and reversal learning, as well as rapid associative learning. This flexibility was unexpected because lizards are commonly believed to have limited cognitive abilities and highly stereotyped behaviour. Our findings indicate that the cognitive abilities of A. evermanni are comparable with those of some endothermic species that are recognized to be highly flexible, and strongly suggest a re-thinking of our understanding of the cognitive abilities of ectothermic tetrapods and of the factors favouring the evolution of behavioural flexibility.     

Using physiology and behaviour to understand the responses of fish early life stages to toxicants

The use of early life stages of fishes (embryos and larvae) in toxicity testing has been in existence for a long time, generally utilizing endpoints such as morphological defects and mortality. Behavioural endpoints, however, may represent a more insightful evaluation of the ecological effects of toxicants. Indeed, recent years have seen a considerable increase in the use of behavioural measurements in early life stages reflecting a substantial rise in zebrafish Danio rerio early life‐stage toxicity testing and the development of automated behavioural monitoring systems. Current behavioural endpoints identified for early life stages in response to toxicant exposure include spontaneous activity, predator avoidance, capture of live food, shoaling ability and interaction with other individuals. Less frequently used endpoints include measurement of anxiogenic behaviours and cognitive ability, both of which are suggested here as future indicators of toxicant disruption. For many simple behavioural endpoints, there is still a need to link behavioural effects with ecological relevance; currently, only a limited number of studies have addressed this issue. Understanding the physiological mechanisms that underlie toxicant effects on behaviour so early in life has received far less attention, perhaps because physiological measurements can be difficult to carry out on individuals of this size. The most commonly established physiological links with behavioural disruption in early life stages are similar to those seen in juveniles and adults including sensory deprivation (olfaction, lateral line and vision), altered neurogenesis and neurotransmitter concentrations. This review highlights the importance of understanding the integrated behavioural and physiological response of early life stages to toxicants and identifies knowledge gaps which present exciting areas for future research.     

Behavioural robustness: a link between distributed mechanisms and coupled transient dynamics

The emergence of a unified cognitive behaviour relies on the coordination of specialized components that distribute across a ‘brain’, body and environment. Although a general dynamical mechanism involved in agent-environment integration is still largely unknown for behavioural robustness, discussions here are focussed on one of the most plausible candidate: the formation of distributed mechanisms working in transient during agent-environment coupling. This article provides discussions on this sort of coordination based on a mobile object-tracking task with situated, embodied and minimal agents, and tests for robust yet adaptive behaviour. The proposed scenario provides examples of behavioural mechanisms that counterbalance the functional organization of internal control activity and agents’ situatedness to enable the evolution of a two-agent interaction task. Discussions in this article suggest that future studies of distributed cognition should take into account that there are at least two possible modes of interpreting distributed mechanisms and that these have a qualitatively different effect on behavioural robustness.