Behavioural deception

Theoretical models predict that deception should occur even in stable signalling systems. Assessment of the prevalence of deception and its importance has, however, been hampered by the lack of a rigorous definition of what constitutes deception and by the anecdotal nature of much of the literature. For an interaction to qualify as deception, the receiver of the "deceptive" signal must incur a cost. While this cost is often clear in interspecific interactions, it is more difficult to evaluate in interactions between members of the same species. A systematic approach to the study of deception, including the use of experimental techniques to elicit deceptive behaviour, is now required. Such an approach may enable us to address a crucial question in social evolution - whether animals are capable of manipulating the minds of others, or merely their behaviour.     

Behavioural homeostasis in mice

For quantitative behavioural traits, hybrids from crosses between inbred strains of mice often show less variability than the inbred strains themselves. Such hybrids therefore show behavioural homeostasis compared with the inbred strains. In some cases behavioural homeostasis is associated with heterosis.     

Behavioural ecology's ethological roots

Since Krebs and Davies's (1978) landmark publication, it is acknowledged that behavioural ecology owes much to the ethological tradition in the study of animal behaviour. Although this assumption seems to be right-many of the first behavioural ecologists were trained in departments where ethology developed and matured-it still to be properly assessed. In this paper, I undertake to identify the approaches used by ethologists that contributed to behavioural ecology's constitution as a field of inquiry. It is my contention that the current practices in behavioural biology owe ethology something much subtler than the simple transposition of Tinbergen's Four Problems for heuristic purposes. Demonstrating what ethology inherited from the long naturalist tradition shows the tensions that strained the field and that later led to the loss of both its unity and its specificity. It also allows for a precise delineating of what behavioural ecology picked up from the ethological practice, and it helps to cast some light on the introduction of economical thinking in behavioural sciences.     

Behavioural assessment of fetal health

The assessment of behavioural activity of the fetus is widely used to assess fetal health in clinical practice as part of the biophysical profile as well as the nonstress test. Considerable information regarding normal activity patterns of healthy human fetuses have been obtained from 24 to 40 weeks gestation. It is this information which has provided the scientific foundation for the development of fetal assessment protocols. Studies in chronically-catheterized fetal sheep have demonstrated that acute hypoxemia leads to an inhibition of fetal breathing movements although prolonged reductions in oxygen delivery to the fetus in the absence of acidemia are associated with adaptation by the fetus and subsequent return to normal incidence of behavioural activity. The behavioural responses of the fetus to specific stimuli including vibroacoustic stimulation have been examined in relation to gestational age as well as type of stimulus, it is proposed that fetal acoustic stimulation could possibly be used to assess fetal neurological function although prior to it being accepted as an universal method for assessing fetal health it is essential that a greater understanding of the mechanisms involved in fetal responses to sound and vibration be determined using appropriate experimental techniques.     

Behavioural actions of neurohypophysial peptides

The neurohypophysial hormones vasopressin and oxytocin modulate memory processes. Vasopressin facilitates while oxytocin attenuates memory consolidation and retrieval. These influences are located in different regions of the molecules. Thus, the neurohypophysial hormones act as precursor molecules for neuropeptides involved in memory processes. The covalent ring structures of both vasopressin and oxytocin mainly affect consolidation, the linear parts, retrieval processes, while nearly the whole oxytocin or vasopressin molecule is needed for attenuation of consolidation and retrieval. Regional studies by microdissection techniques in combination with a sensitive radioenzymatic catecholalmine assay, indicate that vasopressin modulates memory processes by modulation of neurotransmission in distinct catecholamine systems. Recent experiments suggest that the influence of vasopressin on memory consolidation is mediated by the dorsal noradrenergic bundle via terminal regions of this bundle. Studies on the conversion of oxytocin in synaptosomal plasma membrane preparations of rat limbic brain suggest the possible generation of fragments with specific effects on memory processes. Regional differences in enzyme activity further substantiate the implication of oxytocin as a prohormone in this respect. Clinical studies support the evidence from laboratory findings that vasopressin is also involved in memory processes in man.     

Behavioural treatment of obesity.

Behaviour modification is a promising method of therapy for obesity. Helping the patient to gain control over environmental stimuli and positive reinforcement for the acquisition of appropriate eating and exercise habits are the basis of most treatment programs. While behavioural approaches have, on the average, resulted in greater weight loss than traditional measures during active therapy, responses have been highly variable, and the eventual outcome remains to be established by long-term follow-up studies. The best results are probably achieved with a combination of behavioural therapy and other measures such as a formal exercise program. Since primary prevention may be critical to the overall control of obesity, behavioural approaches may also be applied to young children.     

Behavioural flexibility and reputation formation

Limited flexibility in behaviour gives rise to behavioural consistency, so that past behaviour is partially predictive of current behaviour. The consequences of limits to flexibility are investigated in a population in which pairs of individuals play a game of trust. The game can either be observed by others or not. Reputation is based on trustworthiness when observed and acts as a signal of behaviour in future interactions with others. Individuals use the reputation of partner in deciding whether to trust them, both when observed by others and when not observed. We explore the effects of costs of exhibiting a difference in behaviour between when observed and when not observed (i.e. a cost of flexibility). When costs are low, individuals do not attempt to signal that they will later be trustworthy: their signal should not be believed since it will always pay them to be untrustworthy if trusted. When costs are high, their local optimal behaviour automatically acts as an honest signal. At intermediate costs, individuals are very trustworthy when observed in order to convince others of their trustworthiness when unobserved. It is hypothesized that this type of strong signalling might occur in other settings.     

Behavioural medicine in health promotion

Behavioural medicine is a rapidly developing interdisciplinary field that integrates the physiological and psychosocial aspects of human behaviour and applies them to prevention. In the early stage of chronic non-infectious illnesses of great epidemiological significance the most important risk factors are the reversible psychophysiological regulation disturbances. According to the behavioural medicine model depressive symptomatology, hopelessness, anxiety, non-adaptive ways of coping, dysfunctional attitudes are common risk factors in the background of self-destructive behavioural disturbances, such as smoking, alcohol and drug abuse and suicidal behaviour. The basic link between physiological and psychological phenomena is the decision making process, the cognitive appraisal, evaluation of the given situation, which is very subjective and depends on the socialization process. The modern civilised way of life continuously creates situations in which we experience loss of control, and therefore the psychological and physiological balance can only be obtained with great difficulty. Especially under conditions of sudden cultural and socioeconomic transition strengthening adaptive ways of coping and preventing emotional disturbances are fundamental in health promotion.     

Behavioural ecology in traditional societies

Can models from behavioural ecology explain cultural diversity in human populations? Studies of variation in reproductive and productive behaviour, both within and between traditional societies, are beginning to show that specific predictions from sexual selection and optimal foraging theory can be developed and tested with human data. Greatest success has been in the study of foraging; whereas attempts to understand patterns of marriage and parental investment have been most convincing in those cases where behaviour is related to specific ecological and social conditions. The aim of human behavioural ecologists in the future will be to determine the constraints that the dual goals of reproduction and production place on individuals.