Correlation of carnassial tooth size and body weight in recent carnivores (mammalia)

The correlation between the lower carnassial crown area and the body weight is examined for modern carnivores. It is very high, but the ursids and felids show a relationship different from the other carnivore families. Some exceptions are discussed. The possibility of predicting body weight for fossils is given.     

Habitat disturbance and small mammal richness and diversity in an Atlantic rainforest area in southeastern Brazil.

Since disturbance is an important ecological factor affecting species diversity in natural environments, the increasing human occupation rate in Brazilian Atlantic rainforest, which supports about 50% of Brazil's human population, has resulted in intense habitat degradation and fragmentation. Within this rainforest, animal and plant species have been lost at a high rate, and biological and diversity is presently vulnerable. Various animals community studies along a gradient of environmental disturbances have shown that the highest species diversities occur in habitats with intermediate levels of disturbance frequency and intensity. In the present study, which was carried out in the Atlantic forest of Ilha Grande (23 degrees 11' S and 44 degrees 12' W), an island located on the southern coast of Rio de Janeiro State, southeastern Brazil, we estimated species richness, diversity, and abundance of small mammals in three forest areas having different disturbance levels. This was done, in each of these areas and in an anthropic area that they surround, by establishing trails 200 m long, in which points were marked at 20 m intervals. The work involved a total effort of 4800 trap/nights. We also measured some habitat variables at each site in order to evaluated their disturbance levels. Our data showed that the two most conserved forests had the lower species richness and small mammal diversity, while in the anthropic area wild species were absent. The forest with an intermediary level of disturbance showed higher values for species richness and diversity, with the anthropic area presenting the highest disturbance level.     

Synanthropy of Sarcophagidae (Diptera) in southeastern Brazil

Sarcophagidae (Diptera) are potential vectors of several pathogens. They are also very important in forensic entomology, providing basic information on the circumstances of death. The objective of this study was to determine the synanthropic index of adult Sarcophagidae collected in Rio Claro, state of São Paulo, southeastern Brazil. Sampling occurred between September 2009 and August 2010. Traps baited with sardines, beef liver, or minced meat were set for five consecutive days per month in three distinct ecological areas representing urban, rural, and forest environments. A total of 440 specimens of sarcophagids were collected. The most abundant species was Peckia (Sarcodexia) lambens (Wiedemann), followed by Oxysarcodexia thornax (Walker), Peckia (Euboettcheria) collusor (Curran & Walley), Peckia (Euboettcheria) sp., and Peckia (Pattonella) intermutans (Walker). The only species with positive synanthropic index values were O. thornax and P. (S.) lambens, which demonstrated a greater preference for inhabited areas. Peckia (Euboettcheria) florencioi (Prado & Fonseca), P. (P.) intermutans, and Peckia (Euboettcheria) australis (Townsend) were only found in the forested area, which demonstrates their importance in forensic entomology because of their preference for a particular type of environment. The greatest number of sarcophagids was found in the forest environment; however, only the forest and rural areas were significantly different in Sarcophagidae abundance.     

两种苹果蠹蛾性引诱剂诱捕器诱捕效率比较及地面植被的影响

在甘肃省高台县通过对三角胶粘式和水盆式这2种类型苹果蠹蛾Cydia pomonella(L.)诱捕器的田间比较研究。结果显示,二者在诱捕效率上存在的明显差异。在苹果蠹蛾密度较低的条件下,三角胶粘式诱捕器平均日诱捕量为2.50只,比水盆式诱捕器高出近2.84倍,最早监测到成虫的时间也比水盆式诱捕器提前3~4d,因此,三角胶粘式诱捕器具有更高的监测效率。结果还显示地面植被的遮盖极大地降低诱捕器的诱捕效果,严重时会使诱捕器对密度较低的苹果蠹蛾种群的监测功能丧失。     

Evaluation of monitoring traps with novel bait for navel orangeworm (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in California almond and pistachio orchards

Experiments conducted in three almond, Prunus dulcis (Rosales: Rosaceae), orchards and three pistachio, Pistacia vera (Sapindales: Anicardiaceae), orchards in 2009 and 2010, and determined that sticky bottom wing traps baited with ground pistachio mummies, or a combination of ground pistachio plus ground almond mummies, trapped more adult female navel orangeworm, Amyelois transitella (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), than did traps baited with ground almond mummies alone. During both years of this study, 2.9 and 1.8 more moths were caught in traps baited with pistachio mummies compared with traps baited with almond mummies in almond orchards and pistachio orchards, respectively. Also, traps located in pistachio orchards caught 5.9 and 8.3 times more navel orangeworm than were trapped from almond orchards in 2009 and 2010, respectively. Implications for use of this novel baited trap in almond and pistachio orchard integrated pest management programs are discussed.     

Identifying habitat types in a disturbed area of the forest-steppe ecotone of Patagonia

We surveyed an old ranch (22,000 ha) in the eastern catchment of lake Nahuel Huapi (Argentina), representing both landscape and historical use patterns of the forest-steppe ecotone in the Andes foothills. The objective was to describe plant-environment relations and to develop a procedure to classify habitat types for conservation aims. Floristic and landscape variables were recorded in 72 upland sites. Vegetation types were classified with Two-way indicator Species Analysis and environmental gradients detected with Detrended Canonical Correspondence Analysis. Vegetation types were tested for environmental homogeneity with Discriminant Analysis. A key to classify habitat types was built out from the classification functions obtained by DA analysis. Floristic classification resulted in 7 steppe types and 4 shrubland/woodland types. Vegetation samples were placed along two main gradients, one related to topography and the other to the type of substrate. Steppe types occur in all positions of the topographic gradient forming a temperature-soil moisture continuum, but only (except one of them) on accumulated substrates. Islands of woody types are confined to relatively warm positions of the topographic gradient and to deflated, rocky substrates. This distribution pattern would be caused by frost sensibility of forest species, and by the different strategies of water capture of woody and herbaceous plants. Three pairs of plant assemblages were not discriminated, allowing classification of 8 habitat types out of the 11 communities. Undiscriminated communities (3 pairs) and misclassified samples (29%) were discussed as the result of disturbances.     

Ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) associated with small terrestrial mammals in the state of Minas Gerais, southeastern Brazil

From June 2005 to November 2010, 43 small mammals encompassing 6 species of Didelphimorphia, 8 species of Rodentia, and 1 species of Lagomorpha were found parasitized by ticks in the state of Minas Gerais, southeastern Brazil. Nine tick species, in total 186 specimens, were identified as follows: Amblyomma cajennense (larvae and nymphs) on opossums and rodents; Amblyomma ovale (nymphs) on rodents; Amblyomma parvum (nymphs) on rodents; Amblyomma coelebs (nymphs) on opossums; Amblyomma dubitatum (nymph) on opossums; Ixodes amarali (females, nymphs, and larvae) on opossums and rodents; Ixodes loricatus (male, females, nymph) on opossums; Ixodes schulzei (female) on rodents; and Haemaphysalis leporispalustris (female) on rabbits. Most of the tick-host associations found in the present study have never been recorded in the literature; those include three new host records for I. amarali, four for A. cajennense, one for A. dubitatum, two for A. ovale, and one for A. coelebs. In addition, we provide the first record of A. coelebs in the state of Minas Gerais.     

Morphometric analysis of Epidendrum secundum (Orchidaceae) in southeastern Brazil

One of the largest genera of Orchidaceae with about 1125 species, Epidendrum L. presents several taxonomic problems, mainly due to the great variability of some of its species. The present study aims at evaluating the influence of different environments on the morphology of individuals from Epidendrum secundum , using morphometry to compare plants under cultivation and plants collected directly from the field. Eighty specimens maintained in cultivation at the Institute of Botany of São Paulo (Brazil) and 146 individuals originating from three natural populations, totaling 226 specimens, were analyzed with multivariate methods (PCA, CVA, DA). The fact that plants growing in rocky outcrops and plants from the Atlantic rainforest showed the largest morphological differentiation among themselves, indicates that phenotypes are strongly influenced by the habitat. Because plants collected from both habitats, maintained under cultivation for at least 20 years maintained their differentiation, such differentiation may have a genetic component. Because individuals collected in such environments present the largest morphological dimensions, new habitats generated by human activity, such as highway margins, seem to be quite favorable for these plants.     

Influences of the reproductive cycle on condition of marine catfishes (Siluriformes,Ariidae) in a coastal area at southeastern Brazil

Marine catfishes use estuaries and bays as part of their life cycle for spawning and feeding purposes, respectively. We compared three species of the family Ariidae in two different environmental conditionsa relatively stable bay site and an estuarine site, which differ in their magnitudes of environmental fluctuation to investigate effects of spawning on condition. We found differences in the parameter b (slope) and in they-intercept (a) among species and sexes. The parameter a varied inversely with b, and thus is not a good indicator to express fish condition. Condition factor did not differ between the two sites for species and sexes when we consider the pooled data. Overall condition was associated with reproductive process, and was high before the reproductive season, decreasing during the spawning period in the estuary, then increasing when fish move to the bay (April–August). Temporal segregation in the reproductive period and small-scale movements between the estuary and the bay are the probable mechanisms to optimize the use of the area by the three species.     

Effect of bait formulation and number of traps on detection of navel orangeworm (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) oviposition using egg traps

Egg traps are the primary tool for monitoring egg deposition of the navel orangeworm, Amyelois transitella (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), and for timing treatments for this pest in almonds, Prunus amygdalus Batsch, and pistachios, Pistacia vera L. We compared, in almond and pistachio orchards, the number of eggs per trap in traps baited with almond meal, pistachio meal, or the current standard commercial bait. When considering cumulative eggs captured over an extended period, traps baited with pistachio meal prepared from previous-crop nuts generally captured a similar number of eggs compared with the commercial bait, and more eggs than those baited with almond meal prepared from previous-crop nuts. However, differences in eggs per trap between bait formulations were not as evident when examining individual weeks, particularly in weeks with few eggs per trap, as is typical when treatment decisions are made. The variance in eggs per trap was generally greater than the mean and increased with the mean and, when mean eggs per trap was low, most traps did not have eggs. We discuss implications of these findings for the relative importance of bait type and trap numbers for monitoring, and for experiments comparing egg trap performance.     

Helminth community structure of Tropidurus torquatus (Squamata: Tropiduridae) in a rocky outcrop area of Minas Gerais state, southeastern Brazil

The helminth community of Tropidurus torquatus (Squamata: Tropiduridae) from a rocky outcrop area located in the state of Minas Gerais, southeastern Brazil, was studied. Ninety-two of the 110 individuals examined (83.6%) harbored helminths. Five species were found, including 3 nematodes ( Physaloptera lutzi , Parapharyngodon bainae , and Oswaldofilaria chabaudi ), 1 unidentified cestode species, and 1 acanthocephalan cystacanth also not identified. Only the nematode species had sufficient data to perform ecological analysis, with P. lutzi exhibiting the highest prevalence (67.3%). Prevalence between male and female hosts differed only for Oswaldofilaria chabaudi , with males exhibiting the highest values. The intensities of infection by P. lutzi and O. chabaudi were different among male and female hosts, with males also exhibiting the highest values. The host body size was positively related to intensity of infection for all nematode species. Local seasonality had some influence on the helminth community structure. Host diet, sexual dimorphism, and behavior (territorialism, forage strategy) represented important factors for the structure of this parasite community. In general, the helminth community was species poor, depauperate, and non-interactive, representing a typical structure observed in lizard hosts.     

Reproductive biology of Astyanax fasciatus (Pisces: Characiformes) in a reservoir in southeastern Brazil

To study the reproductive biology of Astyanax fasciatus (Cuvier, 1819) in Furnas Reservoir, Minas Gerais, Brazil, a total of 1307 specimens were captured in bimonthly sampling from August 1993 to July 1994. The sex ratio showed a predominance of females, representing 65.2% of the total sample. The stages of gonadal maturation and spawning type were determined through macro- and microscopic analysis of the gonads as well as by variation in the gonadosomatic indices. A . fasciatus showed fractionated spawning and reproduction throughout the year, with spawning peaks influenced by water temperature and rainfall. Males and females initiated gonadal maturation at a mean standard length of 6.4 and 6.5 cm, respectively. During gonadal maturation, females showed a reduction in hepatosomatic index (from 1.06 to 0.83), suggesting that hepatic substances are transferred from the liver to the ovaries. In the reproductive period, A. fasciatus had lower stomach repletion and coelomic fat indices, indicating that this species ate less and consumed more fat reserves when reproduction had the maximum GSI (11.3 for females and 2.7 for males). Weight of the ovaries had a positive influence on the condition factor (K1), as the lowest K2 value (weight without gonads) were obtained during maturation, confirming the influence of the ovaries upon the physiological condition of the females. In weight–length relationship, parameter b was 3.02 for females and 2.23 for males, and the correlation coefficient ( r ²) was 0.84 and 0.66, respectively.     

Nest relocation and prey specialization in the antLeptogenys propefalcigera Roger (Formicidae: Ponerinae) in an urban area in southeastern Brazil

Summary Leptogenys propefalcigera Roger in southeastern Brazil feeds exclusively on oniscid isopods, showing a strong preference for one of two species. The ant shows a conspicuous nomadic behavior, with frequent nest relocations. The significance of these features is compared with other species ofLeptogenys and specialized predatory ants.     

Exposure to rabies virus in a population of free-ranging capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella nigritus) in a fragmented, environmentally protected area in southeastern Brazil

The aim of this study is to assess the frequency of rabies antibodies in free-ranging capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella nigritus) in a fragmented, environmentally protected, rural area of southeastern Brazil. Thirty-six free-ranging monkeys were tested by the rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test for detection of antibodies against rabies virus. Four individuals (11.11 %) had neutralizing antibody titers ≥ 0.25 IU/mL, demonstrating rabies virus exposure.     

Removal and insertion of pollinia in flowers of Oxypetalum (Asclepiadaceae) in southeastern Brazil

Pollinarium removal and pollinium insertion of seven Oxypetalum species (O. alpinum var. alpinum, O. appendiculatum, O. banksii subsp. banksii, O. jacobinae, O. mexiae, O. pachyglossum and O. subriparium) were recorded in Vi?osa. Minas Gerais. They presented a tendency of one or two pollinarium removals and one pollinium insertion (single insertion), except O. appendiculatum. In this species, mainly, two pollinia of the same pollinarium were inserted per stigmatic chamber (double insertion), resulting exceptionally in 6-10 inserted pollinia in a flower, an unusual occurrence among the Asclepiadaceae. No association between removal and insertion was found, e.g., O. subriparium and O. banksii subsp. banksii had the highest pollinarium removal (1.78 and 1.45, respectively) and one of the lowest pollinium insertions (0.02 in both species), per flower. Oxypetalum mexiae showed the lowest pollinarium removal and pollinium insertion per flower (0.09 and 0.01, respectively) among the studied species and other Asclepiadaceae. Oxypetalum subriparium, O. banksii subsp. banksii and O. mexiae might be having reproductive limitations. Pollinarium removal and pollinium insertion per flower of the studied species varied from site to site, similarly to what was recorded for other Asclepiadaceae.     

Patterns of gall-forming in Ossaea confertiflora (Melastomataceae) by Lopesia brasiliensis (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) in an area of Atlantic Rainforest in southeastern Brazil

Patterns of galling by the gall midge Lopesia brasiliensis (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) were studied in Ossaea confertiflora (Melastomataceae) in an Atlantic forest site at Ilha Grande, RJ. Out of the 81 plants surveyed, 55 (67.9%) bore galls. The number of galls per galled individual ranged from 1 to 261 and 94.4% of the galls were in leaves. The number of galls per galled leaf varied from 1 to 25. Total gall number was positively correlated with plant height. Larger and more ramified plants tended to have a smaller percentage of their leaves with galls and a lower density of galls per leaf than smaller plants. Plants that were close to other individuals of the same species tended to have more galls per leaf than relatively isolated plants. The observed patterns may be linked to strategies of optimization in the use of resources (i.e. oviposition sites) and predation avoidance by the gall midges.     

Foliar growth of Eriocnema fulva Naudin (Melastomataceae) in a forest fragment in southeastern Brazil.

Eriocnema fulva Naudin is an endangered herbaceous, perennial, iteroparous, evergreen species geographically restricted to southeastern-center Minas Gerais State, SE Brazil. The individuals occur as patches on rocky riverbanks shaded by seasonal semideciduous Atlantic forest; they are fixed by roots and have a pending stem. Aiming to investigate leaf development and its importance for individual survival, fifteen contiguous plots (1 x 1 m) were set down in Jambreiro Forest (19 degrees 58'-59' S and 43 degrees 52'-55' W, 800-1100 m altitude), in the municipality of Nova Lima. A total of 260 individuals with the largest leaf blade length > or = 1 cm was tagged and measured in 1997, 1998, and 1999. Leaf expansion was recorded each month during 26 months until April 2000. Plant size was measured through leaf blade length, petiole length, stem length, and number of leaves. Significant changes were detected only after two years, thus indicating that plant growth is slow. The proportion of surviving leaves after two years was 60%. Total blade expansion took over 14 months, a slow growth rate when compared to leaves of other tropical forest canopy and understory species. Long leaf lifespans are to be found in plants exhibiting slow growth, and we observed that some leaves lived longer than three years. Petiole growth can help to better position the leaf in the search for light, thus contributing to the growth and survival of the plant. The relationships among size measures were significant, reinforcing the great contribution of leaf size for plant size. The age of the largest individual was estimated as 36 years based on the median annual leaf production rate.     

Orchid bee fauna (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Euglossina) of Atlantic Forest fragments inside an urban area in southeastern Brazil

Male orchid bees were collected by chemical baiting in four forest fragments in parks of the city of Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, southeastern Brazil. One thousand three hundred and twenty-five males belonging to 14 species were captured within one year. The capture data were compared through correlation tests. The data suggest that abundance of orchid bees tend to increase with fragment size, although no correlation between species richness and fragment size was obtained. The results presented herein suggest that forest fragments in a large city may be of importance concerning conservation of orchid-bee faunas.     

Spider prey (Araneae) of Trypoxylon (Trypargilum) rogenhoferi (Hymenoptera: Sphecidae) in southeastern Brazil

Fifty five nests and 216 cells of Trypoxylon (Trypargilum) rogenhoferi were obtained from trap-nests (cut bamboo canes) in Santa Carlota Farm (Itaoca Section = IS and Santana Section = SS), Cajuru and on the S?o Paulo University Campus, Ribeir?o Preto (= RP), both in the State of S?o Paulo, Brazil (Sept. 1993-Oct. 1995). The prey (spiders) of 40 cells from IS, 58 from SS and 39 from RP were identified. The greatest nesting frequency occurred during the hot and wet season (September to April). T. rogenhoferi preyed upon individuals of five spider families, with Araneidae (orb-weaver spiders) being the most frequent (99.6%). Alpaida aff. negro (58%) was the most frequently collected species in IS, followed by A. alto (24.8%); in SS (59.6%) and RP (64.7%) the most frequent species was A. veniliae, followed in SS by A. aff. negro (14.9%) and in RP by A. leucogramma (13.5%). The size of reproductive niches, H' = 1.25 (IS), H' = 1.30 (SS) and H' = 1.29 (RP) were not significantly different. There was a positive correlation between the reproductive niche width (H') and evenness.     

Vegetation and environmental heterogeneity relationships in a Neotropical swamp forest in southeastern Brazil (Itirapina, SP)

Patterns in substrate, canopy openness, tree species composition and structure were studied in a swamp forest in southeastern Brazil (Itirapina, SP), using a fine spatial scale (∼0.05 km²). Sixty quadrats of 10 m × 10 m were divided into three sample plots, located in the centre and at both ends of the forest remnant (upstream and downstream), encompassing different environmental conditions. In each quadrat we quantified and identified individuals with CBH (circumference at breast height) ≥ 10 cm, the chemical properties of the soil, the drainage (flooded area) and the percentage of canopy openness. We keep 5124 individuals distributed over 37 species and 25 families. The downstream site presented a lower frequency of flooding, canopy openness, species richness (15 species) and density of individuals. In the central site we found different patterns of drainage and light incidence, the greatest species richness (31 species) and density of individuals, but smaller trees both in height and in diameter. The upstream site was subject to higher frequency of flooding, with intermediate values for density and species richness (27 species). Floristic and structural variation between and within sites reflects the different environmental conditions related to substrate and canopy openness. However, a larger number of species were correlated with drainage pattern (21 species) rather than with canopy openness (14 species), suggesting that the main factor responsible for the spatial organization of the plant community in swamp forests is soil drainage.