Contest competition among Maculinea rebeli butterfly larvae in ant nests

Abstract.

• 1 Caterpillars of the myrmecophilous butterfly Maculinea rebeli showed strong evidence of contest competition when introduced at high densities to laboratory nests of Myrmica ants.
• 2 This is attributed to the direct feeding of caterpillars by workers, which select a few individuals to nurture when food or ant numbers are limiting. It contrasts with published data for a congener, Maculinea arion, which has predacious larvae and experiences scramble competition in crowded ant nests.
• 3 Worker ants from two Myrmica rubra colonies (I and II) were used to found the laboratory nests hosting Maculinea rebeli. Nests from each source reared a similar biomass of Maculinea, but whereas those containing M. rubra I workers reared eight to ten lightweight caterpillars each, cultures from colony II reared half as many caterpillars, each of about double the weight.
• 4 Differences in nest capacity may be due to the different social structures of colonies I and II at the start of the experiment.

     

Lack of compensation by final instar larvae of the myrmecophilous lycaenid butterfly,Jalmenus evagoras,for the loss of nutrients to ants

Abstract Larvae and pupae of the Australian lycaenid butterfly, Jalmenus evagoras Donovan (Lepidoptera; Lycaenidae), are protected from parasites and predators by attendant ants. In return, the juveniles of J. evagoras secrete to the ants a solution containing substantial amounts of sugars and amino acids. Larvae of J. evagoras were reared from hatching until adult eclosion either with or without ants. Experiments were performed to examine whether fifth (final) instar larvae attempt to compensate for the nutrient loss to ants, by consuming more food, digesting food more efficiently, or extending development time. The presence or absence of ants had no effect on the feeding rate, efficiency of digestion or development time of fifth instar larvae. Larvae with ants converted a smaller proportion of ingested food into biomass, and consequently grew less than their counterparts without ants. Thus fifth instar larvae of J. evagoras do not appear to compensate for the nutrient loss to ants. Possible reasons for the failure to compensate are discussed.     

Ants that associate with Lycaeninae butterfly larvae: diversity, ecology and biogeography

Abstract. Field data on associations of butterfly larvae with ants were collated for 435 species of the subfamily Lycaeninae to analyse patterns in the identity, diversity and ecology of attendant ants. Worldwide, members of at least fifty-three ant genera from six subfamilies associate with Lycaeninae larvae. All these ant genera also forage for other liquid carbohydrate food sources. Species of Crematogaster and Camponotus constitute by far the most important ant associates of Lycaeninae larvae. Diversity of butterfly–ant associations, as measured by Hurlbert rarefaction, is highest in the Oriental, Australian and Nearctic faunal regions, and lower in Africa and the Palaearctic. The Neotropical region could not be assessed separately due to paucity of data. Multiple regression analyses revealed that the number of Lycaeninae species associated with a particular ant genus in a facultatively mutualistic manner is largely determined by the ecological prevalence and geographical distribution, but does not correlate with species richness, of an ant genus. This opportunism is suggested to be the key variable supporting the geographically and taxonomically widespread occurrence of ant–caterpillar mutualism in the Lycaeninae. Obligate interactions are much more specific and almost exclusively involve ecologically dominant ants with long-lived colonies. Neither species richness nor geographical distribution of an ant genus are significant predictors. In such associations, the role of ants shifts from visitors to hosts, and patterns of host use and specificity resemble those known from inquiline ant guests.     

Species-specific effects of tending ants on the development of lycaenid butterfly larvae

The transfer of nutrients between organisms is a common feature of mutualism. The production of these food rewards is often assumed to be costly. Estimation of the costs of producing food rewards is important for understanding the overall effects of the interaction on fitness. When food rewards are harvested by several species differing in foraging behavior, costs to the producer may differ. The larvae of many species in the butterfly family Lycaenidae produce secretions consumed by tending ants. Here I report that three North American ant species, Formica perpilosa, Dorymyrmex sp. (smithi complex), and Forelius foetida, had no negative effect on the duration of development and adult size of the lycaenid Hemiargus isola. Moreover, tending by the ant Formica perpilosa significantly enhanced larval growth, resulting in butterflies that were 20% heavier than their untended counterparts. Tending by the ants Dorymyrmex sp. (smithi complex) and Forelius foetida had no effect on butterfly weight. Tended, nonfeeding larvae lost 69% more weight than untended, nonfeeding larvae. Taken together, the results suggest that, although ant tending imposes a physiological cost, H. isola larvae use behavioral or physiological mechanisms to compensate or overcompensate for nutrients lost to ants.     

Variation in behavior of lycaenid larvae when attended by different ant species

Partner quality can be crucial for the outcome of a mutualistic interaction. In multi-species associations, the characteristics of potential partners can vary substantially and thus the associated benefits. As a consequence of such variation, one might expect strategies of adjusting investments to the characteristics of a partner. Lycaenid butterfly larvae often interact mutualistically with several ant species of different size and aggressiveness and thereby different ability to protect the larvae. Attending ants are rewarded with nutritious secretions. Both ant behavior and a larva's need for protection are known to influence larval investment in the relationship. This study investigates the effect of six ant species on larval behavior in the lycaenid butterfly, Glaucopsyche lygdamus. The overall level of secretion, as well as the response to varying number of attending ants, were found to be influenced by ant species. This revised version was published online in November 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Complete elimination of hostplant quinolizidine alkaloids by larvae of a polyphagous lycaenid butterfly,Callophrys rubi

Caterpillars of the lycaenid butterfly Callophrys rubi accept a variety of hostplants. When fed inflorescences or leaves of Genista tinctoria (a natural hostplant) or Lupinus polyphyllus (a non-host), the larvae completely eliminate quinolizidine alkaloids ingested from their food in their frass. No alkaloids are stored. Infestation by the parasitoid wasp Distatrix sancus (Braconidae) did not affect alkaloid elimination. The presence of an effective anti-toxin system is discussed with reference to the evolution of hostplant relationships in the genus Callophrys. There is no evidence that in the secondarily myrmecoxenous larvae of C. rubi hostplantderived chemical defense takes the place of former myrmecophily.     

厦门市森林蝴蝶种类

在厦门市森林昆虫调查基础上,1998-2004年对厦门市森林蝴蝶进行种类调查,鉴定厦门市森林蝴蝶7科39种,并编制分种检索表.     

滕派蝶画的始祖和当代传人

滕派蝶画始于唐高祖李渊的第二十二皇子李元婴,唐贞观十三年,即公元639年受封为滕王,"滕派蝶画"因此而得名。滕派蝶画有其独特的手法与风格,其绘画技艺传至元婴之子李湛然时,王府幕宾梁太尉常伴湛然作画而学得滕派蝶画真传,并独家相传数十代之久,传至梁冠三时巳是清末时期。1923年,佟冠亚成为滕派蝶画的传人。1995年,佟冠亚之子佟起来成为当代滕派蝶画传人。滕派蝶画经历唐、宋、元、明、清1000多年没有失传。佟起来现任中国河南滕派蝶画院院长,他事业有成,创作了许多滕派蝶画的作品,继承和发扬了滕派蝶画,使蝶文化既有光辉的过去,也有更加灿烂的现在与将来。     

Vocal repertoire of the New Zealand kea parrot Nestor notabilis

The unique alpine-living kea parrot Nestor notabilis has been the focus of numerous cognitive studies,but its communication system has so far been largely neglected.We examined 2,884 calls recorded in New Zealand's Southern Alps.Based on audio and visual spectrographic differences,these calls were categorised into seven distinct call types:the non-oscillating ‘screech' contact call and ‘mew'; and the oscillating ‘trill',‘chatter',‘warble' and ‘whistle'; and a hybrid ‘screech-trill'.Most of these calls contained aspects that were individually unique,in addition to potentially encoding for an individual's sex and age.Additionally,for each recording,the sender's previous and next calls were noted,as well as any response given by conspecifics.We found that the previous and next calls made by the sender were most often of the same type,and that the next most likely preceding and/or following call type was the screech call,a contact call which sounds like the 'kee-ah' from which the bird's name derives.As a social bird capable of covering large distances over visually obstructive terrain,long distance contact calls may be of considerable importance for social cohesion.Contact calls allow kea to locate conspecifics and congregate in temporary groups for social activities.The most likely response to any given call was a screech,usually followed by the same type of call as the initial call made by the sender,although responses differed depending on the age of the caller.The exception was the warble,the kea's play call,to which the most likely response was another warble.Being the most common call type,as well as the default response to another call,it appears that the ‘contagious' screech contact call plays a central role in kea vocal communication and social cohesion.     

Host plant utilization by butterfly larvae in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Indian Ocean)

The larval food plants of the butterflies of the Andaman and Nicobar islands have not been studied, although the butterfly fauna per se is fairly well known. For the first time we report the food plants of the larvae of 120 species of butterflies from these islands on the basis of laboratory rearing and field studies. This information is essential for the formulation of management programmes for butterfly conservation on these islands which are known to harbour critical swallowtail and (possibly) danaine faunas.     

Higher productivity at the cost of increased host-specificity when Maculinea butterfly larvae exploit ant colonies through trophallaxis rather than by predation

Abstract .1. Field studies were made of the benefits and costs of two feeding strategies in the genus Maculinea, whose final-instar larvae parasitise Myrmica ant colonies. Maculinea arion is an obligate predator of ant brood, whereas M. rebeli and M. alcon mimic ant larvae and are fed (like cuckoos) directly by the workers.
2. Samples of > 1500 Myrmica nests confirmed laboratory-based predictions that, by feeding at a lower trophic level, many (4.7-fold) more individuals of M. rebeli and M. alcon are supported per ant colony than M. arion.
3. Because of their efficient feeding, cuckoo species often occupied sites where their phytophagous early larval populations coincided to only a small extent (> 10%) with host Myrmica colonies, whereas all sites supporting M. arion had 50–100% of the phytophagous stages within foraging range of the host Myrmica species.
4. Greater host-specificity was identified as another consequence of cuckoo-feeding. The ecological cost of this is discussed .
5. The feeding of other Maculinea species had not been fully described: the data suggest that M. nausithous is a predator of ant brood and confirm that M. teleius is predacious .     

The effect of host-plant quality on the survival of larvae and oviposition by adults of an ant-tended lycaenid butterfly, Jalmenus evagoras

Abstract.

• 1 Juveniles of the Australian lycaenid butterfly, Jalmenus evagorus (Donovan), secrete to ants a solution of sugars and amino acids, primarily serine. The attendant ants protect the larvae and pupae from parasites and predators.
• 2 The effect of caterpillar nutrition on the defence provided by ants was investigated. Potted food plants of Acacia decurrens were either given water containing nitrogenous fertilizer or were given water alone. Fertilized plants had a higher nitrogen content than unfertilized plants.
• 3 Fifth instar larvae of J.evagoras feeding on fertilized plants attracted a larger ant guard than those feeding on unfertilized plants. In the absence of caterpillars, ants were not differentially attracted to fertilized and unfertilized plants.
• 4 In the presence of ants, over a 10-day period, larvae on fertilized plants survived better than larvae on unfertilized plants. In the absence of ants larvae survived equally on fertilized and unfertilized plants. It is concluded that larvae on fertilized plants attracted a larger ant guard, and thereby survived better, than larvae on unfertilized plants.
• 5 Adult females of J. evagoras preferred to lay egg batches on fertiized, rather than unfertilized plants, but they did not lay larger egg batches.

     

The distribution and density of a lycaenid butterfly in relation to Lasius ants

Summary Larvae and pupae of lycaenid butteflies are often associated with ants: this is usually a mutualism in which ants guard the lycaenids from natural enemies, and the lycaenid larvae and pupae provide sugars and amino acids for the ants. A possible consequence of the interaction is spatially correlated ant and lycaenid distributions, but the phenomenon is poorly documented. We examined the lycaenid Plebejus argus, which is tended by Lasius ants. Within habitat patches, P. argus eggs, larvae and pupae were all spatially associated with Lasius. On a larger scale, the densities of butterflies in different habitat patches and populations, and whether the butterfly was present or not, were correlated with Lasius ant densities. The association of P. argus with Lasius ants is consistent among populations, and occurs at several spatial scales. Other aspects of the ecology of P. argus are more variable.     

The conservation of declining butterfly populations in Britain and Europe: priorities, problems and successes

The status, ecology and conservation of butterflies in Europe and Britain are reviewed, as a background to the National Trust's past and future contribution to British conservation. Britain has a poor butterfly fauna by European standards, the main areas of endemism and species richness being in the Alps and southern Europe. To date, the main declines among European butterfly populations have occurred across central-northern Europe, with slightly higher extinction rates in mainland countries than in Britain. The main causes of decline are biotope destruction, the loss of certain species' habitats within surviving semi-natural biotopes due to changed land management, and a failure by several species to track the patches of their habitat that are still being generated in modern fragmented landscapes. Until recently, most conservation programmes failed to take account of the latter two factors, resulting in many local extinctions of rare butterfly species even in conservation areas. Recent measures have been much more successful; many were first tested on National Trust properties.     

Rearing the pale grass blue Zizeeria maha (Lepidoptera,Lycaenidae): Toward the establishment of a lycaenid model system for butterfly physiology and genetics

Although some nymphalid butterflies have been intensively used to study mechanisms of the colour pattern formation on butterfly wings, lycaenid butterflies are equally attractive, having easily identifiable distinct spot patterns and highly diverse colour patterns among species. To establish a lycaenid model system for physiological and genetic experiments, we here describe a series of methods for rearing the Japanese pale grass blue Zizeeria maha (Kollar) (Lepidoptera, Lycaenidae) in a small laboratory space with an artificial diet for generations. Adult individuals readily mated and oviposited in a small cage with sufficient light, flowers, and host plants. Eggs were harvested in the cage, and larvae were successfully reared to normal adults with an artificial diet made from fresh leaves (AD‐F), although they were smaller than those reared with a natural diet. Feeding an artificial diet made from dried leaves (AD‐D) frequently produced adult individuals with aberrant wing colour patterns. Using our rearing methods, it is now possible to rear this species in a laboratory and to establish specific strains for physiological and genetic experiments on the wing colour pattern development, diversity, and evolution.     

黄山地区蝶类初步调查

通过对黄山地区蝶类的初步调查,获得11科,121种,其呈些属珍稀种类,如金裳风蝶、宽尾凤蝶、银白蛱蝶、橙翅襟粉蝶等。     

Midgut glycosidases activities in monophagous larvae of Apollo butterfly, Parnassius apollo ssp. frankenbergeri

Parnassius apollo (Lepidoptera, Papilionidae) declines on numerous localities all over Europe. Its local subspecies frankenbergeri, inhabiting the Pieniny Mts (southern Poland) and successfully recovered from extinction, is monophagous in larval stage. In natural conditions, it completes development on the orpine Sedum telephium ssp. maximum. Since proper quality and quantity of necessary nutritional compounds of the food plant ensure developmental success, the digestive processes in the insect midgut should reflect adaptation to a specific food source. The paper presents, for the first time, the activity of detected glycolytic enzymes in midgut tissue and liquid gut contents of the L4 and L5 instars of P. apollo larvae. alpha-Amylase plays the main role in utilization of carbohydrates, contrary to cellulase activity. Saccharase seems to be the main disaccharidase, and high activity of beta-glycosidase enables hydrolysis of the plant glycosides. Trehalase activity was unexpectedly low and comparable to those of cellobiase and lactase. alpha-Amylolytic and other glycolytic activities indicate that larvae utilize starch and other carbohydrate compounds as energy sources. Possible use of some plant allelochemicals as energy sources by Apollo larvae is discussed.