FGF21 counteracts alcohol intoxication by activating the noradrenergic nervous system

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FGF21 treatment ameliorates alcoholic fatty liver through activation of AMPK-SIRT1 pathway

Fibroblast growth factor 21 （FGF21）, a recently identified member of the FGF superfamily, is mainly secreted from the liver and adipose tissues and plays an important role in improving metabolic syndrome and homeostasis. The aim of this study is to evaluate the role of FGF21 in alcoholic fatty liver disease （AFLD） and to determine if it has a therapeutic effect on AFLD. In this paper, we tested the effect of FGF21 on alcohol-induced liver injury in a murine model of chronic ethanol gavage and alcohol-treated HepG2 cells. Male KM mice received single dose of 5 g/kg ethanol gavage every day for 6 weeks, which induced sig- nificant fatty liver and liver injury. The alcohol-induced fatty liver cell model was achieved by adding ethanol into the medium of HepG2 cell cultures at a final concentration of 75 mM for 9 days. Results showed that treatment with recombinant FGF21 ameliorated alcoholic fatty liver and liver injury both in a murine model of chronic ethanol gavage and alcohol-treated HepG2 cells. In addition, FGF21 treatment down-regulated the hepatic expression of fatty acid synthetic key enzyme, activated hepatic AMPK- SIRT1 pathway and significantly down-regulated hepatic oxidative stress protein. Taken together, FGF21 corrects multiple metabolic parameters of AFLD in vitro and in vivo by activation of the AMPK-SIRT1 pathway.     

The fasting polypeptide FGF21 can enter brain from blood

FGF21 recently has been proposed as a missing link in the biology of fasting, raising the question of whether it directly reaches the brain. We used multiple time-regression analysis to quantify the influx rate of this polypeptide across the blood–brain barrier (BBB), size-exclusion chromatography to examine degradation, capillary depletion to differentiate entry into brain parenchyma from retention in the microvasculature, and measurement of efflux rate to determine a possible confounding effect on measurement of entry. FGF21 was 94% intact in serum and 75% in brain 10 min after intravenous bolus delivery. Its influx rate was 0.23 ± 0.12 μl/g-min, nearly four times faster than that of the vascular marker albumin. At 10 min, about 0.5% of the administered FGF21 was present in a gram of brain tissue. Of this, 70% reached the parenchyma of the brain. Co-injection of excess FGF21 failed to inhibit the influx, showing a lack of saturation. Efflux, which occurred at the same rate as the bulk reabsorption of cerebrospinal fluid, also was not saturable. In summary, FGF21 shows significant, non-saturable, unidirectional influx across the BBB.     

Fibroblast growth factor (FGF)-21 signals through both FGF receptor-1 and 2

Fibroblast growth factor (FGF)-21 is a member of the FGF superfamily based on sequence homology. However, unlike most members of this family it does not show any mitogenic activity in all cell types tested. The objective of this study is to identify and characterize receptors for this molecule. Sequencing of the cDNA clones from 3T3-L1 adipocytes indicates that the only isoforms for FGFR-1 and 2 expressed in 3T3-L1 cells are 1IIIc and 2IIIc, respectively, suggesting that FGF-21 regulates glucose metabolism in 3T3-L1 adipocytes through FGFR-1IIIc and FGFR-2IIIc.     

Glucose induces FGF21 mRNA expression through ChREBP activation in rat hepatocytes

Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) has beneficial effects of improving the plasma glucose and lipid profiles in diabetic rodents. Here, we investigated carbohydrate response element binding protein (ChREBP) involvement in the regulation of FGF21 mRNA expression in liver. Glucose stimulation and adenoviral overexpression of dominant active ChREBP increased FGF21 mRNA. Consistently, adenoviral expression of dominant negative Mlx inhibited glucose induction of FGF21 mRNA. Furthermore, deletion studies of mouse FGF21 gene promoter (−2000 to +65 bp) revealed a glucose responsive region between −74 and −52 bp. These findings suggest that FGF21 expression is regulated by ChREBP.     

FGF21对能量代谢的调控

成纤维细胞生长因子21（fibroblast growth factor 21,FGF21）作为一种不依赖胰岛素的血糖调节因子,目前已被看做是治疗2型糖尿病的一个潜在的新型治疗因素.大量鼠类及灵长类动物模型的实验结果显示：FGF21可通过作用于脂肪组织及胰腺来降低血糖和甘油三酯含量,从而预防饮食诱导的肥胖及胰岛素抵抗.此外,FGF21也被证明可作为一种主要的内源性调控子,在禁食和酮症时起着关键的调控作用.然而,一些临床观察实验的结果表明,临床观察实验与动物模型实验之间虽然具有一定的相似性,但也存在很多不同,因而目前FGF21在人体中的生理学作用仍不明确.     

不同活动、饥饿和饮食成分状态下FGF21的动力学表达

成纤维细胞生长因子21（fibroblast growth factor,FGF21）是FGF家族中的新成员．目前研究显示,FGF21是一个新的糖脂代谢调节因子,有望成为治疗糖尿病的新型药物．为探讨FGF21的生理功能,利用real-time PCR和Western印迹,检测FGF21在不同生理或病理状态下基因水平和蛋白水平的表达量变化规律．实验结果显示,在全天24 h中,小鼠肝脏中FGF21在晚18点至21点,表达量显著升高,这可能与啮齿类动物傍晚活动加强及进食习性有关|FGF21在饥饿后表达量显著升高,在饥饿后喂食FGF21的表达量下降,并且随着饥饿时间的延长,FGF21的表达量升高,说明FGF21与饥饿程度呈正相关|灌注葡萄糖后20 min内,FGF21的表达量下降,而灌注脂肪乳20 min内,FGF21的表达量上升,说明葡萄糖是FGF21的负调节因子,而脂肪乳是FGF21的正调节因子|利用谷氨酸钠造模的肥胖小鼠,肝脏中FGF21的表达量显著高于同龄对照组,说明肥胖可诱导FGF21高表达．综上所述,FGF21的表达量变化与小鼠夜间活动取食、饥饿程度、饮食中不同的成分以及肥胖有关.     

Deadenylase-dependent mRNA decay of GDF15 and FGF21 orchestrates food intake and energy expenditure

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运动调控FGF21在改善肥胖相关代谢性疾病中的作用

肥胖是糖尿病、脂肪肝、心血管疾病等慢性代谢性疾病发生发展的重要风险因素。运动可以改善肥胖,对相关代谢性疾病的预防与康复具有积极作用。成纤维细胞生长因子21 (fibroblast growth factor 21,FGF21)是一种对机体能量稳态、糖脂代谢有积极调控作用的内分泌因子,是代谢性疾病预防和治疗的有效靶点之一。FGF21抵抗是机体对FGF21反应性减弱的现象,表现为靶组织生物学效应降低,机体FGF21代偿性合成增加。这可能是由FGF21受体(fibroblast growth factor receptors,FGFRs)和β-klotho蛋白(β-klotho,KLB)表达减少或敏感性降低所致。肥胖患者常出现FGF21抵抗,改善FGF21抵抗是治疗肥胖及相关代谢性疾病的新思路。运动不仅可以增加部分组织FGF21表达量,还可以刺激FGFRs与KLB的表达来敏化FGF21的作用,改善FGF21抵抗。     

Rush to the fire: FGF21 extinguishes metabolic stress,metaflammation and tissue damage

FGF21 is a master regulator of homeostasis of local and systemic lipid, glucose and energy metabolism. Since its discovery a decade ago, significant progress has been made in understanding the basic molecular, cellular and physiological mechanisms underlying its metabolic roles, and characterizing its beneficial pharmacological activities and possible pathological roles in obesity, diabetes, dyslipidemia, fatty liver disease and their collateral complications and tissue damage. Under basal or normal conditions, FGF21 appears to play a dispensable role in metabolism. However, in response to a variety of cellular and metabolic stress, FGF21 is significantly upregulated to serve as a potent catabolic factor leading to the clearance of excessive lipids and glucose, and therefore, antagonizes metabolic and energy imbalance in a negative fashion. Furthermore, FGF21 treatment ameliorates tissue damage resulted from the harmful effects of metabolic abnormalities, which often ensue an oxidative, pro-inflammatory, inflammatory and/or immune stress state, the so-called metaflammation. Most notably, studies focusing on the liver, pancreas, cardio-vasculature and kidney have revealed its significant protective effects against the structural and functional damages induced by the obese, diabetic or other abnormal metabolic conditions. In this review, we will summarize the current progress on the roles of FGF21 against metaflammation and metabolic tissue damage.     

精氨酸修饰成纤维细胞生长因子21及修饰后蛋白体内稳定性和糖代谢调节作用的研究

成纤维细胞生长因子21(fibroblast growth factor21,FGF21)是2000年发现的一个不依赖胰岛素调节血糖的细胞因子,有望成为治疗糖尿病的候选药物.但是,野生型FGF21由于半衰期较短,在体内不稳定,从而影响其成药性.为提高FGF21的稳定性,本实验在FGF21的C端添加了2个精氨酸(arginine,Arg),命名为FGF21-2A,用Compute pI/Mw软件计算之后,等电点(isoelectric point,pI)从5.43上升到5.84,随后进行了蛋白质的表达、分离纯化、体内稳定性及糖代谢调节作用的研究.诱导表达后菌液的SDS-PAGE图经BandScan5.0分析后显示FGF21-2A的表达量相对于野生型FGF21提高了10.6%.家兔体内半衰期检测实验结果显示FGF21-2A的半衰期显著延长.GOD-POD法检测HepG2肝癌细胞葡萄糖吸收实验、糖尿病小鼠降血糖实验和肝糖原检测实验的结果证明,FGF21-2A的降糖效果得到了增强,并且持续时间相对于野生型FGF21显著延长.Real-time PCR结果发现,长期注射FGF21-2A显著提高了糖尿病小鼠肝脏内葡萄糖转运蛋白(GLUT)1和葡萄糖激酶(GK)mRNA的表达量,降低了葡萄糖-6-磷酸酶(G6P)的mRNA表达量,表明FGF21-2A调节糖代谢的机制与野生型FGF21一致.综上所述,精氨酸修饰的FGF21其蛋白质稳定性提高,进而增加了对血糖的调控效果,有望成为新型糖尿病药物.     

The Hormone FGF21 Stimulates Water Drinking in Response to Ketogenic Diet and Alcohol

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Cannabinoid CB1 receptor knockout mice exhibit markedly reduced voluntary alcohol consumption and lack alcohol-induced dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens

The mechanisms underlying predisposition to alcohol abuse and alcoholism are poorly understood. In this study, we evaluated the role of cannabinoid (CB1) receptors in (i) voluntary alcohol consumption, and (ii) acute alcohol-induced dopamine (DA) release in the nucleus accumbens, using mice that lack the CB1 receptor gene (CB1-/-). CB1-/- mice exhibited dramatically reduced voluntary alcohol consumption, and completely lacked alcohol-induced DA release in the nucleus accumbens, as compared to wild-type mice. The gender difference, with female mice consuming significantly more alcohol than wild-type male mice, was observed in wild-type mice, whereas this gender difference was nonexistent in CB1 mutant male and female mice. There was also a significant gender difference, with the wild-type, heterozygous, and mutant females consuming significantly more liquid and food than wild-type, heterozygous and mutant males. However, the total volume of fluid consumption and food intake did not differ between wild-type, heterozygous, and mutant mice. These results strongly suggest that the CB1 receptor system plays an important role in regulating the positive reinforcing properties of alcohol.     

FoxO1 suppresses Fgf21 during hepatic insulin resistance to impair peripheral glucose utilization and acute cold tolerance

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Dynamic folding modulation generates FGF21 variant against diabetes

Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) is a regulator of glucose and lipid metabolism. It has been widely considered as a promising candidate for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and other related metabolic disorders. However, lack of structural and dynamic information has limited FGF21‐based drug development. Here, using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, we determine the structure of FGF21 and find that its non‐canonical flexible β‐trefoil conformation affects the folding of β2‐β3 hairpin and further overall protein stability. To modulate folding dynamics, we designed an FGF21‐FGF19 chimera, FGF21^SS. As expected, FGF21^SS shows better thermostability without inducing hepatocyte proliferation. Functional characterization of FGF21^SS shows its better insulin sensitivity, reduced inflammation in 3T3‐L1 adipocytes, and lower blood glucose and insulin levels in ob/ob mice compared with wild type. Our dynamics‐based rational design provides a promising approach for FGF21‐based therapeutic development against T2DM.     

利用CRISPR/Cas9系统构建FGF21基因敲除小鼠模型

成纤维细胞生长因子(fibroblast growth factors, FGFs)是细胞间的多功能信号分子,调节生物体的多种生理功能。FGF21作为一种重要的调控因子,对毛囊发育及生长周期具有重要作用。为研究FGF21基因对毛囊发育及生长周期的影响及作用机制,本研究通过构建靶向敲除FGF21基因的载体,体外将Cas9 mRNA和gRNA显微注射到FVB小鼠受精卵中,在小鼠FGF21基因的第1外显子上造成移码突变,从而获得FGF21基因敲除(knock out, KO)小鼠。通过测序鉴定F₀代小鼠基因型,共获得3只FGF21等位基因敲除小鼠(Fgf21 ^-/-);qRT-PCR和Western blotting结果表明,在Fgf21 ^-/-小鼠中未检测到FGF21 mRNA表达和FGF21蛋白表达;经脱毛再生及皮肤组织H&E染色发现,与野生型(wild type, WT)小鼠相比,Fgf21 ^-/-小鼠体重降低、器官组织未出现异常变化、毛发生长速度减慢、毛囊的直径和毛发的密度均减小。本研究利用CRISPR/Cas9技术成功构建了Fgf21 ^-/-小鼠模型,为后续研究FGF21基因在毛囊发育及生长周期中的功能提供了更好的动物模型。     

血清GDF-15、FGF21与非酒精性脂肪性肝病患者肝纤维化和代谢综合征的关系研究

摘要 目的：研究血清生长分化因子15（GDF-15）、成纤维细胞生长因子21（FGF21）与非酒精性脂肪性肝病（NAFLD）患者肝纤维化和代谢综合征（MS）的关系。方法：选取我院2019年1月～2021年2月收治的102例NAFLD患者记作研究组。另选取同期健康体检志愿者100例作为对照组。比较两组血清GDF-15、FGF21与肝纤维化指标水平,并采用Pearson相关性分析明确血清GDF-15、FGF21与肝纤维化指标水平的关系。此外,将研究组患者按照是否并发MS分为MS组以及非MS组,比较MS组以及非MS组血清GDF-15、FGF21水平以及基线资料。采用多因素Logistic回归分析NAFLD并发MS的影响因素。结果：研究组血清GDF-15、FGF21水平高于对照组（均P＜0.05）。研究组血清透明质酸（HA）、层粘连蛋白（LN）、Ⅲ型前胶原（PCⅢ）以及Ⅳ型胶原（ⅣC）水平高于对照组（均P＜0.05）。经Pearson相关性分析发现,血清GDF-15、FGF21水平与血清HA、LN、PCⅢ、ⅣC水平均呈正相关关系（均P＜0.05）。经单因素分析发现,血清天冬氨酸氨基转移酶（AST）、丙氨酸氨基转移酶（ALT）、GDF-15、FGF21水平以及体质量指数、空腹血糖（FPG）、餐后2小时血糖（2hPG）、收缩压（SBP）、舒张压（DBP）、甘油三酯（TG）均和MS有关（均P＜0.05）。经多因素Logistic回归分析发现,血清AST、ALT升高是NAFLD并发MS的保护因素,而体质量指数、GDF-15、FGF21、FPG、2hPG、SBP、DBP、TG升高均是NAFLD并发MS的危险因素（均P＜0.05）。结论：血清GDF-15、FGF21与NAFLD患者肝纤维化以及MS均密切相关,可作为预测NAFLD患者肝纤维化以及MS的辅助性生物学指标。