<Emphasis Type="Italic">Agrobacterium</Emphasis>-mediated transformation system for large-scale producion of transgenic chinese cabbage (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Brassica rapa</Emphasis> L. ssp.<Emphasis Type="Italic">pekinensis</Emphasis>) plants for insertional mutagenesis

In order to better utilize insertional mutagenesis and functional genomics in Chinese cabbage, we have developed an improved transformation system that more efficiently produces a large number of transgenic plants. Hypocotyl explants were inoculated withAgrobacterium tumefaciens LBA4404. This strain harbors tagging vector pRCV2, which contains a hygromycin-resistance gene, an ampicillin resistance gene, and a bacterial replication origin within the T-DNA. Transformation efficiency was highest when the explants were first co-cultivated for 3 d in a medium supplemented with 5 mg L^-1 acetosyringone, then transferred to a 0.8% agar selection medium containing 10 mg L^-1 hygro-mycin. In addition, maintaining a low pH in the co-cultivation medium was critical to enhancing transformation frequency. A total of 3369 transgenic plants were obtained, with efficiencies ranging from 2.89% to 5.00%. Southern blot analysis and T, progeny tests from 120 transgenic plants confirmed that the transgenes were stably inherited to the next generation. We also conducted plasmid rescue and inverse PCR with some transformants, based on their phenotype, to demonstrate the applicability of T-DNA tagging in Chinese cabbage. The tagged sequences were then analyzed.     

Development of a highly effective T-DNA inserted mutant screening method in a Chinese cabbage (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Brassica rapa</Emphasis> L. spp. <Emphasis Type="Italic">pekinensis</Emphasis>) reverse genetics system

We present a highly effective T-DNA inserted gene screening method as part of a reverse genetics model system using the Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa L. spp. pekinensis). Three-step two-dimensional (2D) matrix strategies are potentially accurate and useful for the identification of specific T-DNA inserted mutants from a large population. To construct our Chinese cabbage model, we utilized a forward genetics screening approach for the abnormal phenotypes that were obtained from transgenic plants of Brassica rapa generated with Agrobacteria tumefaciens containing the pRCV2 vector. From one transgenic plant with an abnormal phenotype, we observed that the st1 gene (which is related to senescence-associated process proteins) contained a T-DNA fragment, and that its expression level was decreased. This T-DNA insert was then used as a control to construct an effective screening pool. As a result, the optimum template concentration was found to be 0.1–1 ng in our PCR strategy. For other conditions, positive changes to the Gibbs free energy prevented the formation of oligo dimers and hairpin loop structures, and autosegment extension gave better results for long fragment amplification. Using this effective reverse genetics screening method, only 23 PCR reactions were necessary to select a target gene from a pool of 100 individual DNAs. Finally, we also confirmed that the sequence we obtained from the above method was identical to the flanking sequence isolated by rescue cloning.     

Generation and flanking sequence analysis of a rice T-DNA tagged population

Insertional mutagenesis provides a rapid way to clone a mutated gene. Transfer DNA (T-DNA) of Agrobacterium tumefaciens has been proven to be a successful tool for gene discovery in Arabidopsis and rice (Oryza sativa L. ssp. japonica). Here, we report the generation of 5,200 independent T-DNA tagged rice lines. The T-DNA insertion pattern in the rice genome was investigated, and an initial database was constructed based on T-DNA flanking sequences amplified from randomly selected T-DNA tagged rice lines using Thermal Asymmetric Interlaced PCR (TAIL-PCR). Of 361 T-DNA flanking sequences, 92 showed long T-DNA integration (T-DNA together with non-T-DNA). Another 55 sequences showed complex integration of T-DNA into the rice genome. Besides direct integration, filler sequences and microhomology (one to several nucleotides of homology) were observed between the T-DNA right border and other portions of the vector pCAMBIA1301 in transgenic rice. Preferential insertion of T-DNA into protein-coding regions of the rice genome was detected. Insertion sites mapped onto rice chromosomes were scattered in the genome. Some phenotypic mutants were observed in the T₁ generation of the T-DNA tagged plants. Our mutant population will be useful for studying T-DNA integration patterns and for analyzing gene function in rice.Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at .Communicated by D. Mackill     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">pgd1</Emphasis>, an <Emphasis Type="Italic">Arabidopsis thaliana</Emphasis> deletion mutant,is defective in pollen germination

An Arabidopsis deletion mutant was fortuitously identified from the alpha population of T-DNA insertional mutants generated at the University of Wisconsin Arabidopsis Knockout Facility. Segregation and reciprocal crosses indicated that the mutant was a gametophytic pollen sterile mutant. Pollen carrying the mutation has the unusual phenotype that it is viable, but cannot germinate. Thus, the mutant was named pollen germination defective mutant 1 (pgd1), based on the pollen phenotype. Flanking sequences of the T-DNA insertion in the pgd1 mutant were identified by thermal asymmetric interlaced (TAIL) PCR. Sequencing of bands from TAIL PCR revealed that the T-DNA was linked to the gene XLG1, At2g23460, at its downstream end, while directly upstream of the T-DNA was a region between At2g22830 and At2g22840, which was 65 genes upstream of XLG1. Southern blotting and genomic PCR confirmed that the 65 genes plus part of XLG1 were deleted in the pgd1 mutant. A 9,177 bp genomic sequence containing the XLG1 gene and upstream and downstream intergenic regions could not rescue the pgd1 pollen phenotype. One or more genes from the deleted region were presumably responsible for the pollen germination defect observed in the pgd1 mutant. Because relatively few mutations have been identified that affect pollen germination independent of any effect on pollen viability, this mutant line provides a new tool for identification of genes specifically involved in this phase of the reproductive cycle.     

SNP discovery and genetic mapping of T-DNA insertional mutants in Fragaria vesca L.

As part of a program to develop forward and reverse genetics platforms in the diploid strawberry [Fragaria vesca L.; (2n = 2x = 14)] we have generated insertional mutant lines by T-DNA mutagenesis using pCAMBIA vectors. To characterize the T-DNA insertion sites of a population of 108 unique single copy mutants, we utilized thermal asymmetric interlaced PCR (hiTAIL-PCR) to amplify the flanking region surrounding either the left or right border of the T-DNA. Bioinformatics analysis of flanking sequences revealed little preference for insertion site with regard to G/C content; left borders tended to retain more of the plasmid backbone than right borders. Primers were developed from F. vesca flanking sequences to attempt to amplify products from both parents of the reference F. vesca 815 × F. bucharica 601 mapping population. Polymorphism occurred as: presence/absence of an amplification product for 16 primer pairs and different size products for 12 primer pairs, For 46 mutants, where polymorphism was not found by PCR, the amplification products were sequenced to reveal SNP polymorphism. A cleaved amplified polymorphic sequence/derived cleaved amplified polymorphism sequence (CAPS/dCAPS) strategy was then applied to find restriction endonuclease recognition sites in one of the parental lines to map the SNP position of 74 of the T-DNA insertion lines. BLAST search of flanking regions against GenBank revealed that 46 of 108 flanking sequences were close to presumed strawberry genes related to annotated genes from other plants.     

Rice <Emphasis Type="Italic">Importin β1</Emphasis> gene affects pollen tube elongation

Importin β1 interacts with nuclear transport factors and mediates the import of nuclear proteins. We isolated a pollen-expressed gene, rice Importin β1 (OsImpβ1), from a T-DNA insertional population that was trapped by a promoterless β-glucuronidase (GUS) gene. The GUS reporter was expressed in the anthers and ovaries from early through mature developmental stages. Its expression was also observed in all floral organs. However, these patterns changed as the spikelet developed. T-DNA was inserted into the OsImpβ1 gene at 339 bp downstream from the translation initiation site. We obtained another T-DNA insertional allele by searching the flanking sequence tag database. In both lines, the wild-type and T-DNA-carrying progeny segregated at a ratio close to 1:1. The latter genotype was heterozygous (OsImpβ1/osimpβ1). Reciprocal crosses between WT and heterozygous plants demonstrated that the mutant alleles could not be transmitted through the male gametophyte. Close examination of the heterozygous anthers revealed that the mutant pollen matured normally. However, in vitro assays showed that tube elongation was hampered in the mutant grains. These results indicate that OsImpβ1 is specifically required for pollen tube elongation.     

Identification of Pathogenicity-Related Genes in the Vascular Wilt Fungus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Verticillium dahliae</Emphasis> by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Agrobacterium tumefaciens</Emphasis>-Mediated T-DNA Insertional Mutagenesis

Verticillium dahliae is the causal agent of vascular wilt in many economically important crops worldwide. Identification of genes that control pathogenicity or virulence may suggest targets for alternative control methods for this fungus. In this study, Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation (ATMT) was applied for insertional mutagenesis of V. dahliae conidia. Southern blot analysis indicated that T-DNAs were inserted randomly into the V. dahliae genome and that 69% of the transformants were the result of single copy T-DNA insertion. DNA sequences flanking T-DNA insertion were isolated through inverse PCR (iPCR), and these sequences were aligned to the genome sequence to identify the genomic position of insertion. V. dahliae mutants of particular interest selected based on culture phenotypes included those that had lost the ability to form microsclerotia and subsequently used for virulence assay. Based on the virulence assay of 181 transformants, we identified several mutant strains of V. dahliae that did not cause symptoms on lettuce plants. Among these mutants, T-DNA was inserted in genes encoding an endoglucanase 1 (VdEg-1), a hydroxyl-methyl glutaryl-CoA synthase (VdHMGS), a major facilitator superfamily 1 (VdMFS1), and a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) mannosyltransferase 3 (VdGPIM3). These results suggest that ATMT can effectively be used to identify genes associated with pathogenicity and other functions in V. dahliae.     

T-DNA integration patterns in transgenic tobacco plants

To investigate the various integration patterns of T-DNA generated by infection withAgrobacterium, we developed a vector (pRCV2) for the effective T-DNA tagging and applied it to tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum cv. Havana SR1). pRCV2 was constructed for isolating not only intact T-DNA inserts containing both side borders of T-DNA, but also for partial T-DNA inserts that comprise only the right or left side. We also designed PCR confirmation primer sets that can amplify in several important regions within pRCV2 to detect various unpredictable integration patterns. These can also be used for the direct inverse PCR. Leaf disks of tobacco were transformed withAgrobacterium tumefaciens LBA4404 harboring pRCV2. PCR and Southern analysis revealed the expected 584 bp product for thehpt gene as well as one of 600 bp for thegus gene in all transformants; one or two copies were identified for these integrated genes. Flanking plant genomic DNA sequences from the transgenic tobacco were obtained via plasmid rescue and then sequenced. Abnormal integration patterns in the tobacco genome were found in many transgenic lines. Of the 17 lines examined, 11 contained intact vector backbone; a somewhat larger deletion of the left T-DNA portion was encountered in 4 lines. Because nicking sites at the right border showed irregular patterns when the T-DNA was integrated, it was difficult to predict the junction regions between the vector and the flanking plant DNA.     

Hormone-Dependent Insertional Mutants of Arabodopsis thalianawith Reduced Viability and Fertility

We present data on the phenotype identification and genetic analysis of offspring in three lines of dominant morphological mutants of Arabidopsis thalianahaving drastically reduced fertility (a sterile calluslike mutant, a flower mutant, and a dwarf mutant) and in five lines of recessive morphological mutants (four mutants with lethal seedlings and one pigmentation mutant). The mutants were selected from a collection of transgenic plants that had genomes carrying a T-DNA insertion of plasmid vectors pLD3 and pPCVRN4; the collection was created earlier via agrobacterial transformation of germinating seeds. The results presented here were obtained using compensation of hormonal imbalance in the insertional morphological mutants of A. thalianaby exogenous hormones.     

Analysis of T-DNA-<Emphasis Type="Italic">Xa21</Emphasis> loci and bacterial blight resistance effects of the transgene <Emphasis Type="Italic">Xa21</Emphasis> in transgenic rice

The genetic loci and phenotypic effects of the transgene Xa21, a bacterial blight (BB) resistance gene cloned from rice, were investigated in transgenic rice produced through an Agrobacterium-mediated transformation system. The flanking sequences of integrated T-DNAs were isolated from Xa21 transgenic rice lines using thermal asymmetric interlaced PCR. Based on the analysis of 24 T-DNA- Xa21 flanking sequences, T-DNA loci in rice could be classified into three types: the typical T-DNA integration with the definite left and right borders, the T-DNA integration linked with the adjacent vector backbone sequences and the T-DNA integration involved in a complicated recombination in the flanking sequences. The T-DNA integration in rice was similar to that in dicotyledonous genomes but was significantly different from the integration produced through direct DNA transformation approaches. All three types of integrated transgene Xa21 could be stably inherited and expressed the BB resistance through derived generations in their respective transgenic lines. The flanking sequences of the typical T-DNA integration consisted of actual rice genomic DNA and could be used as probes to locate the transgene on the rice genetic map. A total of 15 different rice T-DNA flanking sequences were identified. They displayed restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) between two rice varieties, ZYQ8 and JX17, and were mapped on rice chromosomes 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, 11 and 12, respectively, by using a double haploid population derived from a cross between ZYQ8 and JX17. The blast search and homology comparison of the rice T-DNA flanking sequences with the rice chromosome-anchored sequence database confirmed the RFLP mapping results. On the basis of genetic mapping of the T-DNA- Xa21 loci, the BB resistance effects of the transgene Xa21 at different chromosome locations were investigated using homozygous transgenic lines with only one copy of the transgene. Among the transgenic lines, no obvious position effects of the transgene Xa21 were observed. In addition, the BB resistance levels of the Xa21 transgenic plants with different transgene copy numbers and on different genetic backgrounds were also investigated. It was observed that genetic background (or genome) effects were more obvious than dosage effects and position effects on the BB resistance level of the transgenic plants.     

Insertional mutagenesis in Arabidopsis thaliana: isolation of a T-DNA-linked mutation that alters leaf morphology

Summary We investigated the potential of the Agrobacterium tumefaciens T-DNA as an insertional mutagen in Arabidopsis thaliana. Arabidopsis lines transformed with different T-DNA vectors were generated using a leaf disc infection procedure adapted for efficient selection on either kanamycin or hygromycin medium. A standardized screening procedure was developed for the detection of recessive mutations in T2 populations of regenerated and/or transformed lines. Recessive mutations originating from the tissue culture procedure occurred at a low frequency — between 2% and 5%. Within 110 transformed lines that contained a total of about 150 T-DNA inserts, one recessive mutation, named pfl, cosegregated with a specific T-DNA copy. This pfl mutation mainly affected the morphology of the first seedling leaves under normal growth conditions and was mapped to chromosome 1. No recombination between the pfl locus and the kanamycin resistance marker on the T-DNA was detected when screening F2 and F3 populations of a mutant crossed to the wild type. The maximal genetic distance between the pfl locus and the kanamycin resistance gene, determined as 0.4±0.4 cMorgan, strongly suggests that the pfl mutation is induced by the insertion of the T-DNA. Our finding of one T-DNA-linked recessive mutation in 110 transgenic lines indicates that T-DNA can be used for mutagenization of the Arabidopsis genome under tissue culture conditions.     

Multiple independent defective suppressor-mutator transposon insertions in Arabidopsis: a tool for functional genomics.

A new system for insertional mutagenesis based on the maize Enhancer/Suppressor-mutator (En/Spm) element was introduced into Arabidopsis. A single T-DNA construct carried a nonautonomous defective Spm (dSpm) element with a phosphinothricin herbicide resistance (BAR) gene, a transposase expression cassette, and a counterselectable gene. This construct was used to select for stable dSpm transpositions. Treatments for both positive (BAR) and negative selection markers were applicable to soil-grown plants, allowing the recovery of new transpositions on a large scale. To date, a total of 48,000 lines in pools of 50 have been recovered, of which approximately 80% result from independent insertion events. DNA extracted from these pools was used in reverse genetic screens, either by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using primers from the transposon and the targeted gene or by the display of insertions whereby inverse PCR products of insertions from the DNA pools are spotted on a membrane that is then hybridized with the probe of interest. By sequencing PCR-amplified fragments adjacent to insertion sites, we established a sequenced insertion-site database of 1200 sequences. This database permitted a comparison of the chromosomal distribution of transpositions from various T-DNA locations.     

Vacuum infiltration transformation of non-heading Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa L. ssp. chinensis) with the pinII gene and bioassay for diamondback moth resistance

Non-heading Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa L. ssp. chinensis) is a popular vegetable in Asian countries. The diamondback moth (DBM), Plutella xylostella (L.), an insect with worldwide distribution, is a main pest of Brassicaceae crops and causes enormous crop losses. Transfer of the anti-insect gene into the plant genome by transgenic technology and subsequent breeding of insect-resistant varieties will be an effective approach to reducing the damage caused by this pest. We have produced transgenic non-heading Chinese cabbage plants expressing the potato proteinase inhibitor II gene (pinII) and tested the pest resistance of these transgenic plants. Non-heading Chinese cabbages grown for 45 days on which buds had formed were used as experimental materials for Agrobacterium-mediated vacuum infiltration transformation. Forty-one resistant plants were selected from 1166 g of seed harvested from the infiltrated plants based on the resistance of the young seedlings to the herbicide Basta. The transgenic traits were further confirmed by the Chlorophenol red test, PCR, and genomic Southern blotting. The results showed that the bar and pinII genes were co-integrated into the resistant plant genome. A bioassay of insect resistance in the second generation of individual lines of the transgenic plants showed that DBM larvae fed on transgenic leaves were severely stunted and had a higher mortality than those fed on the wild-type leaves.     

Osmotic shock improves <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tnt1</Emphasis> transposition frequency in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Medicago truncatula</Emphasis> cv Jemalong during in vitro regeneration

Insertion mutant collections are powerful tools for genetic studies in plants. Although large-scale insertional mutagenesis using T-DNA is not feasible in legumes, the Tnt1 tobacco retrotransposon can be used as a very efficient mutagen in the Medicago truncatula R108 genotype. In this article, we show that Tnt1 can also be exploited to create insertional mutants via transformation and/or regeneration in the reference cultivar Jemalong. Tnt1 insertional mutagenesis in Jemalong following Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation was found to be very efficient, with an average of greater than 15 insertions/line. In contrast, regeneration using low-copy transgenic starter lines resulted in a highly variable rate of new Tnt1 insertions. With the goal of increasing the number of additional Tnt1 insertions during regeneration of starter lines, we have compared the insertion frequencies for a number of different regeneration protocols. In addition, we have been able to show that sucrose-mediated osmotic shock preceding regeneration significantly increases the transposition frequency. Under optimal conditions, 95% of the regenerated Jemalong plants possess new insertions.     

Transfer of a Dwarf Gene from Brassica rapa to Oilseed B. napus, Effects on Agronomic Traits, and Development of a ‘Perfect’ Marker for Selection

Lodging can be a serious problem in oilseed Brassica napus. Dwarf genes have been used to reduce lodging in other crops, and their use in wheat and rice was a major factor in the success of the ‘Green Revolution’. We previously reported on a single, semi-dominant, gibberellin insensitive dwarf mutant of B. rapa (Brrga1-d), and provided evidence for homology of this gene to the wheat ‘Green Revolution’ dwarf gene. In this paper, we report using interspecific hybridization of B. rapa and B. oleracea and embryo rescue to resynthesize B. napus containing the Brrga1-d dwarf gene. The dwarf gene was backcrossed into two parents of a commercial hybrid combination and evaluated as inbred and hybrid lines in field experiments. The Brrga1-d gene reduced plant height and lodging in inbred and hybrid lines of B. napus, even when present as a single dose in heterozygous genotypes. Seed yields of inbred lines homozygous for Brrga1-d were reduced compared to near isogenic wild-type inbreds, presumably due to damage by insects caused by a slight delay in flowering time. However, yields of hybrids that were homozygous or heterozygous for Brrga1-d were similar to those of near isogenic wild-type hybrids. In addition, we report on a ‘perfect’ PCR marker for selection of the Brrga1-d gene that is based on detecting the nucleotide mutation causing the dwarf phenotype.     

Morphological and functional characterization of BcMF13 in the antisense-silenced plants of Brassica campestris ssp. chinensis var. parachinensis

The gene Brassica campestris male fertility 13 (BcMF13, GenBank accession number EF158459) was isolated as a reproductive organ-specific gene from Chinese cabbage (Brassica campestris L. ssp. chinensis Makino, syn. B. rapa ssp. chinensis). It is exclusively expressed in stage four and five flower buds of fertile lines and is most strongly expressed in stamens. Here, we report a functional characterization of this BcMF13 gene in the antisense-silenced plants. The inflorescence of the BcMF13 mutant was compacted with anthers curved outside. The fertility of this mutant was greatly reduced with less than 5 seeds per silique. Under scanning electron microscopy, the mutant demonstrated numerous shriveled pollen grains with deep invaginations. The frequency of normal pollen grains was just 45.34%. The pollen mother cell, the tetrad, and the mature pollen of the BcMF13 mutant were abnormal resulting in the poor pollen vitality. Germination test in vivo suggested BcMF13 delayed the pollen tubes’ extension in the style. All these indicated BcMF13 had a vital role in pollen development of Chinese cabbage.     

Are the T-DNA Mutants Amenable to Standard Recombination Analysis?

Genetic analysis with T-DNA mutants often brings difficulties resulting from instability of the transgenic phenotype. In this work three different Arabidopsis thaliana T-DNA embryonic lethals and one T-DNA morphological mutant were analyzed in F2 progeny after 15 different crosses with marker lines for individual chromosomes. F2 analysis of 44 segregation ratios revealed segregation distortion of similar character consisting in abnormal excess of nontransgenic plants to the detriment of transgenic ones. We quantified this phenotypic drift (d) on the basis of phenotypic ratios given the respective formulas. The d values indicate the rate of F1 gametes which loose the T-DNA mutation or ability of its expression. The obtained d value were relatively high, 0.4 to 0.9 for individual crosses. It makes the standard recombination analysis with insertional mutants very problematic or even impossible.