The Functional Role of Balinese Water Temples: A Response to Critics

In earlier publications we have proposed a model to explain the functional role of water temple networks in the agro-ecology of wet rice irrigation on the island of Bali. We argued that the key ecological effects of temple networks are best understood as emergent properties of a complex adaptive system. This argument implies that important aspects of the temple system are largely opaque from the perspective of conventional social science. We proposed that the Green Revolution created a real-world test of our model, by effectively removing the temple networks from their functional role in ecological management. The idea that water temple networks represent a hitherto-unknown kind of institution has been met with appropriate skepticism by other social scientists, who have run a fine-toothed comb through our evidence. Here we evaluate their critiques.     

Dams and Dynasty,and the Colonial Transformation of Balinese Irrigation Management

This article takes issue with Stephen Lansing’s bottom-up model of Balinese irrigation management. Based on archival research and extensive fieldwork in the former south Balinese kingdom of Mengwi, it is argued that in pre-colonial days large scale irrigation depended largely on dynastic involvement. During the colonial period (1906–1942) the Dutch took over the role of regional irrigation management while they strengthened the autonomy of local irrigation associations.     

Emergent Properties of Balinese Water Temple Networks: Coadaptation on a Rugged Fitness Landscape

For over a thousand years, generations of Balinese farmers have gradually transformed the landscape of their island, clearing forests, digging irrigation canals, and terracing hillsides to enable themselves and their descendants to grow irrigated rice. Paralleling the physical system of terraces and irrigation works, the Balinese have also constructed intricate networks of shrines and temples dedicated to agricultural deities. Ecological modeling shows that water temple networks can have macroscopic effects on the topography of the adaptive landscape, and may be representative of a class of complex adaptive systems that have evolved to manage agroecosystems.     

A Treasure Chest of Balinese Images

Book reviewed in this article:
Images of Power: Balinese Paintings Made for Gregory Bateson and Margaret Mead . Hildred Geertz.     

Outside Points of View in the Construction of Balinese Ethnicity and Religion

The ‘outside points of view’ of Muslims, Indian Hindus, tourists and other non‐Balinese towards Balinese culture and religion are often invoked by Balinese religious leaders and urban intelligentsia. This has been described in the literature as ‘defensiveness’ related to the process of gaining state acceptance for Balinese religion as Hinduism. I argue for a more subtle reading of the importance of assumed outside points of view to transformations of Balinese practices and to the construction of Balinese identities, by analysing examples from fieldwork (2001–2003) and from Balinese media relating to current debates over cockfighting, the Balinese language, and Balinese religion. One must differentiate the importance of outside points of view to differently positioned Balinese, determine what specific practices are called into question by such assumed points of view, and clearly distinguish between the flow of cultural categories and concepts in a globalised world and the phenomenon of perceived interactions between religions and cultures. Furthermore, a wider cross‐cultural perspective reveals the limitations of understanding these processes as uniquely postcolonial or postmodern.     

Plant Pathogens in Irrigation Water: Challenges and Opportunities

Plant pathogens in irrigation water were recognized early in the last century as a significant crop health issue. This issue has increased greatly in scope and degree of impact since that time and it will continue to be a problem as agriculture increasingly depends on the use of recycled water. Plant pathogens detected from water resources include 17 species of Phytophthora, 26 of Pythium, 27 genera of fungi, 8 species of bacteria, 10 viruses, and 13 species of plant parasitic nematodes. There is substantial evidence demonstrating that contaminated irrigation water is a primary, if not the sole, source of inoculum for Phytophthora diseases of numerous nursery, fruit, and vegetable crops. These findings pose great challenges and opportunities to the plant pathology community. A variety of water treatment methods are available but few have been assessed for agricultural purposes under commercial conditions. Investigations into their technical feasibility and economics are urgently needed. Aquatic ecology of plant pathogens is an emerging field of research that holds great promise for developing ecologically based water decontamination and other strategies of pathogen mitigation. Pathogen detection and monitoring as well as biological and economic thresholds are much-needed IPM tools and should be priorities of future research. Teaming with hydrologists, agricultural engineers, ecologists, geneticists, economists, statisticians, and farmers is essential to effectively attack such a complex issue of growing global importance. Research should proceed in conjunction with nutrient and pesticide management studies in a coordinated and comprehensive approach as they are interrelated components of water resource conservation and protection.     

Response of Alfalfa Genotypes to Saline Water Irrigation

The influence of saline water (4, 8, 12 dS m^–1) irrigation on gas exchange and growth response of alfalfa genotypes Anand-2, T-9 and IL-112 was studied. T-9 and IL-112 showed a significant increase in net photosynthetic rate (P_N) at low salinity (4 dS m^–1) compared to the control whereas Anand-2 maintained an unaltered P_N. Reduction in P_N at higher salinities was primarily due to reduction of stomatal conductance. There was a greater reduction in transpiration rate as compared to P_N rate, which resulted in an increase in water use efficiency (WUE). High WUE may serve as one of the strategies of the plant to withstand saline environment. However, the slight increase in WUE in Anand-2 could not help in maintaining its growth. Increase in Na⁺ concentration in comparison to K⁺ concentration may also contribute to the inhibition in growth.     

Water and Values: Ecological Research as the Basis for Water Management and Nature Management

Over the past 50 years ecology has developed into a mature branch of the natural sciences, comprising firm concepts (e.g. for rivers River Continuum Concept and Flood Pulse Concept) and extensive empirical surveys (sophisticated lab and field experiments, simulation models, GIS). Estuaries and rivers are continuously threatened ecosystems, considering the massive expansion of man’s economic activities. I focus on rivers and estuaries in the Netherlands (W. Europe), where recent public interest has mainly been determined by two flooding disasters (mega-disaster in 1953; near-disaster in 1995). The measures taken to enhance the safety of the human population were adequate: building of large closure dams, and storm surge barriers in the estuaries, and heightening of levees along the rivers. Eventually these measures were detrimental for what was left of the dynamic river ecosystems from the past. This paper focuses on two ecosystem studies. (1) An ecosystem study in Grevelingen lagoon, a large embanked estuary that changed into a brackish water lagoon. Predictive ecological models (e.g. for the wax and wane of Eelgrass, Zostera marina) were inadequate because of the exceptional characteristics of the lagoon: the ecosystem appeared to be instable, and not resilient. (2) An ecosystem study at Afferdensche and Deestsche Waarden, a floodplain area along the river Waal, strongly affected by toxicants deposited before 1980. We studied the functioning and eco-toxicology of floodplain food webs, deteriorated by pollutants. Fine-tuned spatial components were introduced in ecological risk assessment models of several trophic levels (e.g. a top predator, the Little Owl, Athena noctua). Safety for the human population, living below sea level, and below the level of the main rivers, must be improved, but overhasty technocratic measures deteriorating the remaining semi-natural, highly appreciated landscapes, should be avoided. Stakeholder interests must be adapted to sustainable ecological river management, and not the other way round, as has been done for the past ten centuries.     

Management of Root-knot Nematodes by Phenamiphos Applied through an Irrigation Simulator with Various Amounts of Water

Phenamiphos (6.7 kg a.i./ha) was applied via an irrigation simulator to squash at planting (AP) and 2 weeks after planting (PP), and to corn AP and 1 week PP to manage root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne incognita). The nematicide was applied with 0.25, 0.64, 1.27, and 1.91 cm surface water/ ha to a Lakeland sand in which the soil moisture was at or near field capacity. Based on efficacy and crop response, no additional benefits resulted when phenamiphos was applied in volumes of water greater than 0.25 crn/ha. The cost of applying each 0.25 cm of water over a hectare is approximately $1.08, or a 92% reduction in nematicide application cost over conventional methods ($13.50/ha). Low root-gall indices and high yields from squash and corn indicate more effective nematode management when phenamiphos was applied AP rather than PP. Results from this method of applying phenamiphos suggest that certain nematicides could be used as salvage alternatives when nematodes are detected in crops soon after planting. For multiple-pest management, nematicides, other compatible biocides, and fertilizers could be applied simultaneously with sprinkler irrigation.     

The Subak in Diaspora: Balinese Farmers and the Subak in South Sulawesi

The subak has a long history as an irrigators’ institution on Bali. It has also spread across Indonesia along with Balinese farmers who were resettled by colonial and post-colonial governments or who have migrated spontaneously since colonial times. While subaks have been much researched in Bali itself, little is known about subaks outside Bali. Luwu District in South Sulawesi is one of the areas where thousands of Balinese families settled in the last four decades. Based on research in this transmigration area, this paper analyzes the emergence and development of the subak in relation to the development of irrigation infrastructure of a state-built irrigation system. A comparison between two Balinese settlements in the same system shows that differences in infrastructural and managerial conditions and arrangements between parts of the irrigation system were major determinants of the institutional space allowed for the subak and ways in which the subaks developed.     

Effect of Irrigation Water Quality on the Leaching and Desorption of Phosphorous from Soil

Knowledge of the rate of decrease of nutrients from soils resulting from poor water quality application is essential for long-term planning of crop production while minimizing the impact on groundwater quality. In this study, we examined the effect of Ca²⁺ concentration of irrigation water on phosphorus (P) leaching and kinetic release in columns of sandy soil. Phosphorous sorption in the presence of CaCl₂ solutions with Ca²⁺ concentrations of 3, 5, 10, and 15 mM CaCl₂ was determined to understand the transport and leaching of P in the sandy soil. The geochemical Visual MINTEQ was used to calculate saturation indices. A considerable number of leachate samples contained P at concentrations that could cause eutrophication. Total P leached from soil due to application of different CaCl₂ solutions ranged from 1.7 to 1.8 kg ha^?1 after 20 pore volumes had passed through the soil. Comparison of the leaching experiments results with the kinetic desorption data indicated that leaching removed on average 50 times less P than cumulative P desorbed by successive extractions with different CaCl₂ solutions. Leaching in presence of different CaCl₂ solutions was controlled by rate-limited dissolution of calcium hydroxyappatite and ß-tricalcium phosphate.     

调亏灌溉对菘蓝水分利用及产量的影响

通过探究水分调亏对河西地区膜下滴灌菘蓝(Isatis indigotica)各项生理指标、产量和水分利用的影响, 为菘蓝高效节水种植提供理论指导。于2016年在河西走廊中部张掖市民乐县益民灌溉试验站进行菘蓝水分调亏研究, 在保持苗期和肉质根成熟期充分灌溉的情况下, 在菘蓝营养生长期和肉质根生长期分别进行轻度、中度和重度的水分亏缺处理, 并测定各项光合生理指标、产量和水分利用率。结果表明, 营养生长期和肉质根生长期的中度与重度水分亏缺显著降低了菘蓝叶片净光合速率、叶面积指数、株高及主根长, 并且随水分亏缺程度加重降幅增大; 而轻度水分亏缺与对照组的差异不显著。营养生长期和肉质根生长期轻度水分亏缺处理的菘蓝产量与水分利用效率最高, 分别达到8 239.56 kg·hm^-2和24.11 kg·hm^-2·mm^-1; 其它水分亏缺处理组产量和水分利用效率均有所降低, 与对照组之间差异显著(P<0.05), 重度水分亏缺处理各项指标均最低。因此, 最优的菘蓝水分调控处理为营养生长期和肉质根生长期的轻度水分调亏, 能够降低菘蓝耗水量, 提高水分利用效率且其产量不会降低。     

The Astronomical Orientation of Ancient Greek Temples

Despite its appearing to be a simple question to answer, there has been no consensus as to whether or not the alignments of ancient Greek temples reflect astronomical intentions. Here I present the results of a survey of archaic and classical Greek temples in Sicily and compare them with temples in Greece. Using a binomial test I show strong evidence that there is a preference for solar orientations. I then speculate that differences in alignment patterns between Sicily and Greece reflect differing pressures in the expression of ethnic identity.