Direct evidence for spontaneous branch migration in antiparallel DNA Holliday junctions

The Holliday junction is a central intermediate in genetic recombination. It contains four strands of DNA that are paired into four double helical arms flanking a branch point. In naturally occurring Holliday junctions, the sequence flanking the branch point contains 2-fold (homologous) symmetry. As a consequence of this symmetry, the junction can undergo a conformational isomerization known as branch migration, which relocates the site of branching. In the absence of proteins and in the presence of Mg(2+), the four arms are known to stack in pairs, forming two helical domains whose orientations are antiparallel. Nevertheless, the mechanistic models proposed for branch migration are all predicated on a parallel alignment of helical domains. Here, we have used antiparallel DNA double crossover molecules to demonstrate that branch migration can occur in antiparallel Holliday junctions. We have constructed a DNA double crossover molecule with three crossover points. Two adjacent branch points in this molecule are flanked by symmetric sequences. The symmetric crossover points are held immobile by the third crossover point, which is flanked by asymmetric sequences. Restriction of the helices that connect the immobile junction to the symmetric junctions releases this constraint. The restricted molecule undergoes branch migration, even though it is constrained to an antiparallel conformation.     

No braiding of Holliday junctions in positively supercoiled DNA molecules

The Holliday junction is a prominent intermediate in genetic recombination that consists of four double helical arms of DNA flanking a branch point. Under many conditions, the Holliday junction arranges its arms into two stacked domains that can be oriented so that genetic markers are parallel or antiparallel. In this arrangement, two strands retain a helical conformation, and the other two strands effect the crossover between helical domains. The products of recombination are altered by a crossover isomerization event, which switches the strands fulfilling these two roles. It appears that effecting this switch from the parallel conformation by the simplest mechanism results in braiding the crossover strands at the branch point. In previous work we showed by topological means that a short, parallel, DNA double crossover molecule with closed ends did not braid its branch point; however, that molecule was too short to adopt the necessary positively supercoiled topology. Here, we have addressed the same problem using a larger molecule of the same type. We have constructed a parallel DNA double crossover molecule with closed ends, containing 14 double helical turns in each helix between its crossover points. We have prepared this molecule in a relaxed form by simple ligation and in a positively supercoiled form by ligation in the presence of netropsin. The positively supercoiled molecule is of the right topology to accommodate braiding. We have compared the relaxed and supercoiled versions for their responses to probes that include hydroxyl radicals, KMnO4, the junction resolvases endonuclease VII and RuvC, and RuvC activation of KMNO4 sensitivity. In no case did we find evidence for a braid at the crossover point. We conclude that Holliday junctions do not braid at their branch points, and that the topological problem created by crossover isomerization in the parallel conformation is likely to be solved by distributing the stress over the helices that flank the branch point.     

Resolution of Holliday junction analogs by T4 endonuclease VII can be directed by substrate structure

Endonuclease VII is an enzyme from bacteriophage T4 capable of resolving four-arm Holliday junction intermediates in recombination. Since natural Holliday junctions have homologous (2-fold) sequence symmetry, they can branch migrate, creating a population of substrates that have the branch point at different sites. We have explored the substrate requirements of endonuclease VII by using immobile analogs of Holliday junctions that lack this homology, thereby situating the branch point at a fixed site in the molecule. We have found that immobile junctions whose double-helical arms contain fewer than nine nucleotide pairs do not serve as substrates for resolution by endonuclease VII. Scission of substrates with 2-fold symmetrically elongated arms produces resolution products that are a function of the particular arms that are lengthened. We have confirmed that the scission products are those of resolution, rather than nicking of individual strands, by using shamrock junction molecules formed from a single oligonucleotide strand. A combination of end-labeled and internally labeled shamrock molecules has been used to demonstrate that all of the scission is due to coordinated cleavage of DNA on opposite sides of the junction, 3' to the branch point. Endonuclease VII is known to cleave the crossover strands of Holliday junctions in this fashion. The relationship of the long arms to the cleavage direction suggests that the portion of the enzyme which requires the minimum arm length interacts with the pair of arms containing the 3' portion of the crossover strands on the bound surface of the antiparallel junction.     

Thermodynamics of Forming a Parallel DNA Crossover

The process of genetic recombination involves the formation of branched four-stranded DNA structures known as Holliday junctions. The Holliday junction is known to have an antiparallel orientation of its helices, i.e., the crossover occurs between strands of opposite polarity. Some intermediates in this process are known to involve two crossover sites, and these may involve crossovers between strands of identical polarity. Surprisingly, if a crossover occurs at every possible juxtaposition of backbones between parallel DNA double helices, the molecules form a paranemic structure with two helical domains, known as PX-DNA. Model PX-DNA molecules can be constructed from a variety of DNA molecules with five nucleotide pairs in the minor groove and six, seven or eight nucleotide pairs in the major groove. A topoisomer of the PX motif is the juxtaposed JX₁ molecule, wherein one crossover is missing between the two helical domains. The JX₁ molecule offers an outstanding baseline molecule with which to compare the PX molecule, so as to measure the thermodynamic cost of forming a crossover in a parallel molecule. We have made these measurements using calorimetric and ultraviolet hypochromicity methods, as well as denaturing gradient gel electrophoretic methods. The results suggest that in relaxed conditions, a system that meets the pairing requirements for PX-DNA would prefer to form the PX motif relative to juxtaposed molecules, particularly for the 6:5 structure.     

The flexibility of DNA double crossover molecules

Double crossover molecules are DNA structures containing two Holliday junctions connected by two double helical arms. There are several types of double crossover molecules, differentiated by the relative orientations of their helix axes, parallel or antiparallel, and by the number of double helical half-turns (even or odd) between the two crossovers. They are found as intermediates in meiosis and they have been used extensively in structural DNA nanotechnology for the construction of one-dimensional and two-dimensional arrays and in a DNA nanomechanical device. Whereas the parallel double helical molecules are usually not well behaved, we have focused on the antiparallel molecules; antiparallel molecules with an even number of half-turns between crossovers (termed DAE molecules) produce a reporter strand when ligated, facilitating their characterization in a ligation cyclization assay. Hence, we have estimated the flexibility of antiparallel DNA double crossover molecules by means of ligation-closure experiments. We are able to show that these molecules are approximately twice as rigid as linear duplex DNA.     

Parallel helical domains in DNA branched junctions containing 5',5' and 3',3' linkages

The Holliday junction is a central intermediate in genetic recombination. It contains four strands of DNA that are paired into four double helical arms that flank a branch point. In the presence of Mg2+, the four arms are known to stack in pairs forming two helical domains whose orientations are antiparallel but twisted by about 60 degrees. The basis for the antiparallel orientation of the domains could be either junction structure or the effect of electrostatic repulsion between domains. To discriminate between these two possibilities, we have constructed and characterized an analogue, called a bowtie junction, in which one strand contains a 3',3' linkage at the branch point, the strand opposite it contains a 5',5' linkage, and the other two strands contain conventional 3',5' linkages. Electrostatic effects are expected to lead to an antiparallel structure in this system. We have characterized the molecule in comparison with a conventional immobile branched junction by Ferguson analysis and by observing its thermal transition profile; the two molecules behave virtually identically in these assays. Hydroxyl radical autofootprinting has been used to establish that the unusual linkages occur at the branch point and that the arms stack to form the same domains as the conventional junction. Cooper-Hagerman gel mobility analyses have been used to determine the relative orientations of the helical domains. Remarkably, we find them to be closer to parallel than to antiparallel, suggesting that the preferred structure of the branch point dominates over electrostatic repulsion. We have controlled for the number of available bonds in the branch point, for gel concentration, and for the role of divalent cations. This finding suggests that control of branch point structure alone can lead to parallel domains, which are generally consistent with recombination models derived from genetic data.     

Action of site-specific recombinases XerC and XerD on tethered Holliday junctions.

In Xer site-specific recombination, two related recombinases, XerC and XerD, mediate the formation of recombinant products using Holliday junction-containing DNA molecules as reaction intermediates. Each recombinase catalyses the exchange of one pair of specific strands. By using synthetic Holliday junction-containing recombination substrates in which two of the four arms are tethered in an antiparallel configuration by a nine thymine oligonucleotide, we show that XerD catalyses efficient strand exchange only when its substrate strands are 'crossed'. XerC also catalyses very efficient strand exchange when its substrate strands are 'crossed', though it also appears to be able to mediate strand exchange when its substrate strands are 'continuous'. By using chemical probes of Holliday junction structure in the presence and absence of bound recombinases, we show that recombinase binding induces unstacking of the bases in the centre of the recombination site, indicating that the junction branch point is positioned there and is distorted as a consequence of recombinase binding.     

Cleavage of symmetric immobile DNA junctions by Escherichia coli RuvC

The Holliday junction is a key DNA intermediate in the process of genetic recombination. It consists of two double-helical domains composed of homologous strands that flank a branch point; two of the strands are roughly helical, and two form the crossover between the helices. RuvC is a Holliday junction resolvase that cleaves the helical strands at a symmetric sequence, leading to the production of two recombinant molecules. We have determined the position of the cleavage site relative to the crossover point by the use of symmetric immobile junctions; these are DNA molecules containing two crossover points, one held immobile by sequence asymmetry and the second a symmetric sequence, but held immobile by torsional coupling to the first junction. We have built five symmetric immobile junctions, in which the tetranucleotide recognition site is moved stepwise relative to the branch point. We have used kinetic analysis of catalysis, gel retardation, and hydroxyl radical hypersensitivity to analyze this system. We conclude that the internucleotide linkage one position 3' to the crossover point is the favored site of cleavage.     

Parallel symmetric immobile DNA junctions as substrates for E. coli RuvC Holliday junction resolvase

RuvC is a well-characterized Holliday junction resolvase from E. coli. The presence of symmetry in its preferred recognition sequence leads to ambiguity in the position of the crossover point in the junction, because a symmetric junction can undergo branch migration. Symmetric immobile junctions are junctions that contain such symmetric sites, but are prevented from migrating by their physical characteristics. RuvC activity had been analyzed previously by traditional symmetric immobile junctions, in which the helix axes are held antiparallel in a double-crossover motif. Bowtie junctions are branched four-arm molecules containing 5',5' and 3',3' linkages at their crossover points. A new type of symmetric immobile junction can be made by flanking the crossover point of a Bowtie junction with a symmetric sequence. The junction is immobile because mobility would lead to pairing between parallel, rather than antiparallel, nucleotide pairs. In contrast to conventional Holliday junctions and their analogues, the Bowtie junction assumes a parallel, rather than antiparallel, helical domain conformation, offering a new type of substrate for Holliday junction resolvases. Here, we report the digestion of Bowtie junctions by RuvC. We demonstrate that Bowtie junctions can function as symmetric immobile junctions in this system. We also show that RuvC cleaves antiparallel junctions much more efficiently than parallel junctions, where the protein can bind (and cleave) only one site at a time. These data suggest that the presence of two binding sites leads to communication between the two subunits of the enzyme to increase its activity.     

Resolution of tethered antiparallel and parallel holliday junctions by the Flp site-specific recombinase

Members of the integrase family site-specific recombinases (also called the tyrosine family) bring about recombination in two steps by exchanging pairs of single strands at a time. The product of the first exchange reaction is a four-way DNA junction, the Holliday intermediate. The conformational dynamics by which the recombination complex "isomerizes" from the Holliday-forming to the Holliday-resolving mode are not well understood. Experiments with the lambda Int and Escherichia coli XerC/XerD systems imply that the strand configurations at the branch point of the protein-free junction dictate the resolution mode in the protein-bound junction. We have examined the question of strand bias during resolution for the Flp system by using a series of synthetic Holliday junctions that are conformationally constrained by local sequences or by strand tethering. We have not observed a strong resolution bias in favor of the strands designed to assume the "crossed" configuration within the unbound junction. The resolution patterns with antiparallel junctions in a variety of substrate contexts reveal either parity in strand choice, or only modest disparity. On the other hand, the highly biased resolutions observed in the case of tethered parallel junctions can be explained by the non-equivalence in protein occupancy of the DNA arms of these substrates and/or inefficient conversion of cleavage events to recombinants at the tethered ends.     

Escherichia coli RuvC protein is an endonuclease that resolves the Holliday structure.

Genetic evidence suggests that the Escherichia coli ruvC gene is involved in DNA repair and in the late step of RecE and RecF pathway recombination. To study the biochemical properties of RuvC protein, we overproduced and highly purified the protein. By employing model substrates, we examined the possibility that RuvC protein is an endonuclease that resolves the Holliday structure, an intermediate in genetic recombination in which two double-stranded DNA molecules are linked by single-stranded crossover. RuvC protein cleaves cruciform junctions, which are formed by the extrusion of inverted repeat sequences from a supercoiled plasmid and which are structurally analogous to Holliday junctions, by introducing nicks into strands with the same polarity. The nicked ends are ligated by E.coli or T4 DNA ligases. Analysis of the cleavage sites suggests that DNA topology rather than a particular sequence determines the cleavage site. RuvC protein also cleaves Holliday junctions which are formed between gapped circular and linear duplex DNA by the function of RecA protein. However, it does not cleave a synthetic four-way junction that does not possess homology between arms. The active form of RuvC protein, as studied by gel filtration, is a dimer. This is mechanistically suited for an endonuclease involved in swapping DNA strands at the crossover junctions. From these properties of RuvC protein and the phenotypes of the ruvC mutants, we infer that RuvC protein is an endonuclease that resolves Holliday structures in vivo.     

The site-specific cleavage of synthetic Holliday junction analogs and related branched DNA structures by bacteriophage T7 endonuclease I

Various branched DNA structures were created from synthetic, partly complementary oligonucleotides combined under annealing conditions. Appropriate mixtures of oligonucleotides generated three specific branched duplex DNA molecules: (i) a Holliday junction analog having a fixed (immobile) crossover bounded by four duplex DNA branches, (ii) a similar Holliday junction analog which is capable of limited branch migration and, (iii) a Y-junction, with three duplex branches and fixed branch point. Each of these novel structures was specifically cleaved by bacteriophage T7 gene 3 product, endonuclease I. The cleavage reaction "resolved" the two Holliday structure analogs into pairs of duplex DNA products half the size of the original molecules. The point of cleavage in the fixed-junction molecules was predominantly one nucleotide removed to the 5' side of the expected crossover position. Multiple cleavage positions were mapped on the Holliday junction with the mobile, or variable, branch point, to sites consistent with the unrestricted movement of the phosphodiester crossover within the region of limited dyad symmetry which characterizes this molecule. Based on the cleavage pattern observed with this latter substrate, the enzyme displayed a modest degree of sequence specificity, preferring a pyrimidine on the 3' side of the cleavage site. Branched molecules that were partial duplexes (lower order complexes which possessed single-stranded as well as duplex DNA branches) were also substrates for the enzyme. In these molecules, the cleaved phosphodiester bonds were in duplex regions only and predominantly one nucleotide to the 5' side of the branch point. The phosphodiester positions 5' of the branch point in single-stranded arms were not cleaved. Under identical reaction conditions, individually treated oligonucleotides were completely refractory. Thus, cleavage by T7 endonuclease I displays great structural specificity with an efficiency that can vary slightly according to the DNA sequence.     

Assembly and characterization of five-arm and six-arm DNA branched junctions.

DNA branched junctions have been constructed that contain either five arms or six arms surrounding a branch point. These junctions are not as stable as junctions containing three or four arms; unlike the smaller junctions, they cannot be shown to migrate as a single band on native gels when each of their arms contains eight nucleotide pairs. However, they can be stabilized if their arms contain 16 nucleotide pairs. Ferguson analysis of these junctions in combination with three-arm and four-arm junctions indicates a linear increase in friction constant as the number of arms increases, with the four-arm junction migrating anomalously. The five-arm junction does not appear to have any unusual stacking structure, and all strands show similar responses to hydroxyl radical autofootprinting analysis. By contrast, one strand of the six-arm junction shows virtually no protection from hydroxyl radicals, suggesting that it is the helical strand of a preferred stacking domain. Both junctions are susceptible to digestion by T4 endonuclease VII, which resolves Holliday junctions. However, the putative helical strand of the six-arm junction shows markedly reduced cleavage, supporting the notion that its structure is largely found in a helical conformation. Branched DNA molecules can be assembled into structures whose helix axes form multiply connected objects and networks. The ability to construct five-arm and six-arm junctions vastly increases the number of structures and networks that can be built from branched DNA components. Icosahedral deltahedra and 11 networks with 432 symmetry, constructed from Platonic and Archimedean solids, are among the structures whose construction is feasible, now that these junctions can be made.     

The Holliday junction is finally seen with crystal clarity.

After a long wait, we finally see the structure of the Holliday junction of genetic recombination at atomic resolution. It comprises a right-handed cross of DNA molecules, with an antiparallel orientation of strands.     

Construction of a DNA four-way junction: Design and NMR spectroscopy

In 1964 Holliday postulated the formation of cruciform structures (four-way junctions) in duplex DNA as intermediate in genetic recombination. Since then, many biochemical and biophysical investigations were directed at solving questions concerning structural details of stable four-way junctions. Thus far, NMR spectroscopy played a minor part in these investigations on account of the minimum size of the molecule (expressed as the number of nucleotide residues) that was thought necessary to produce a stable cruciform structure. Indeed, the smallest four-way junction studied thus far by NMR methods was built from four separate DNA strands, each containing 16 nucleotides, a total of 64. Obviously, with such a large structure one runs into assignment problems. We considered the possibility of constructing a stable four-way junction from a single strand of DNA. The underlying idea was to make use of our detailed knowledge of the building principles of stable minihairpin loops. These loops, containing only two nucleotides to bridge the gap between antiparallel strands, are maximally stable in DNA sequences like 5-d(-C-TT-G-), where C and G form a normal Watson-Crick base pair and the two T residues cross the minor groove to form the minihairpin loop. Three of such miniloops could in principle cap three arms of the cruciform. The fourth arm would have an open end. The problem to be solved is to find the minimum length that is required to insure stability of the three closed arms and of the fourth open arm. We were successful with a structure that has three short stems (four base pairs each) and an open-end stem consisting of eight base pairs, a total of 46 residues. NMR experiments, carried out on this molecule in the presence of Mg²⁺, showed details of folding which have never been observed before.     

Gel electrophoretic analysis of the geometry of a DNA four-way junction

Branched DNA molecules (Holliday structures) are believed to be key intermediates in the process of homologous genetic recombination. However, despite the importance of such structures, their transient nature makes it difficult to analyze their physical properties. In an effort to evaluate several models for the geometry of such branched molecules, a stable, synthetic DNA four-way junction has been constructed. The geometry of the synthetic junction has been probed by gel electrophoresis, utilizing the fact that bent DNA molecules demonstrate reduced mobilities on polyacrylamide gels to an extent that varies with the degree of the bend angle. From the synthetic four-way junction, we have produced a set of molecules in which all combinations of two junction arms have been extended by 105 base-pairs. The electrophoretic mobilities of the extended junctions differ in a manner which indicates that the junction is not a completely flexible structure; nor is it tetrahedral or planar-tetragonal. Instead, the four strands that comprise the DNA four-way junction are structurally non-equivalent. The significance of these observations with regard to previous models for four-way junction geometry is discussed.     

DNA recombination: holliday junctions dynamics and branch migration

Holliday junctions are critical intermediates for homologous, site-specific recombination, DNA repair, and replication. A wealth of structural information is available for immobile four-way junctions, but the controversy on the mechanism of branch migration of Holliday junctions remains unsolved. Two models for the mechanism of branch migration were suggested. According to the early model of Alberts-Meselson-Sigal (Sigal, N., and Alberts, B. (1972) J. Mol. Biol. 71, 789-793 and Meselson, M. (1972) J. Mol. Biol. 71, 795-798), exchanging DNA strands around the junction remain parallel during branch migration. Kinetic studies of branch migration (Panyutin, I. G., and Hsieh, P. (1994) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 91, 2021-2025) suggest an alternative model in which the junction adopts an extended conformation. We tested these models using a Holliday junction undergoing branch migration and time-lapse atomic force microscopy, an imaging technique capable of imaging DNA dynamics. The single molecule atomic force microscopy experiments performed in the presence and in the absence of divalent cations show that mobile Holliday junctions adopt an unfolded conformation during branch migration that is retained despite a broad range of motion in the arms of the junction. This conformation of the junction remains unchanged until strand separation. The data obtained support the model for branch migration having the extended conformation of the Holliday junction.     

Molecular mechanisms of holliday junction processing in Escherichia coli

Recent genetic and biochemical studies revealed the mechanisms of late stage of homologous recombination in E. coli. A central intermediate of recombination called “Holliday structure”, in which two homologous duplex DNA molecules are linked by a single-stranded crossover, is formed by the functions of RecA and several other proteins. The products of the ruvA and ruvB genes, which constitute an SOS regulated operon, form a functional complex that promotes migration of Holliday junctions by catalyzing strand exchange reaction, thus enlarging the heteroduplex region. RuvA is a DNA-binding protein specific for these junctions, and RuvB is a motor molecule for branch migration providing energy by hydrolyzing ATP. The product of the ruvC gene, which is not regulated by the SOS system, resolves Holliday junctions by introducing nicks at or near the crossover junction in strands with the same polarity at the same sites. The recombination reaction is completed by sealing the nicks with DNA ligase, resulting in spliced or patched recombinants. The product of the recG gene provides an alternative route for resolving Holliday junctions. RecG has been proposed to promote branch migration in the opposite direction to that promoted by RecA protein. The atomic structure of RuvC protein revealed by crystallographic study, when combined with mutational analysis of RuvC, provides mechanistic insights into the interactions of RuvC with Holliday junction.     

Positive torsional strain causes the formation of a four-way junction at replication forks

The advance of a DNA replication fork requires an unwinding of the parental double helix. This in turn creates a positive superhelical stress, a (+)-DeltaLk, that must be relaxed by topoisomerases for replication to proceed. Surprisingly, partially replicated plasmids with a (+)-DeltaLk were not supercoiled nor were the replicated arms interwound in precatenanes. The electrophoretic mobility of these molecules indicated that they have no net writhe. Instead, the (+)-DeltaLk is absorbed by a regression of the replication fork. As the parental DNA strands re-anneal, the resultant displaced daughter strands base pair to each other to form a four-way junction at the replication fork, which is locally identical to a Holliday junction in recombination. We showed by restriction endonuclease digestion that the junction can form at either the terminus or the origin of replication and we visualized the structure with scanning force microscopy. We discuss possible physiological implications of the junction for stalled replication in vivo.     

Evidence for biased holliday junction cleavage and mismatch repair directed by junction cuts during double-strand-break repair in mammalian cells

In mammalian cells, several features of the way homologous recombination occurs between transferred and chromosomal DNA are consistent with the double-strand-break repair (DSBR) model of recombination. In this study, we examined the segregation patterns of small palindrome markers, which frequently escape mismatch repair when encompassed within heteroduplex DNA formed in vivo during mammalian homologous recombination, to test predictions of the DSBR model, in particular as they relate to the mechanism of crossover resolution. According to the canonical DSBR model, crossover between the vector and chromosome results from cleavage of the joint molecule in two alternate sense modes. The two crossover modes lead to different predicted marker configurations in the recombinants, and assuming no bias in the mode of Holliday junction cleavage, the two types of recombinants are expected in equal frequency. However, we propose a revision to the canonical model, as our results suggest that the mode of crossover resolution is biased in favor of cutting the DNA strands upon which DNA synthesis is occurring during formation of the joint molecule. The bias in junction resolution permitted us to examine the potential consequences of mismatch repair acting on the DNA breaks generated by junction cutting. The combination of biased junction resolution with both early and late rounds of mismatch repair can explain the marker patterns in the recombinants.