The meiotic and mitotic chromosomes of picture-winged Hawaiian Drosophila species. I. Drosophila grimshawi and D. cyrtoloma

The mitotic and meiotic chromosomes of Drosophila grimshawi and Drosophila cyrtoloma, species of the picture-wing group of Hawaiian Drosophilidae, are described. The "primitive" Drosophila karyotype of five pairs of rods and one pair of dots, found in grimshawi, is compared with the karyotype for cyrtoloma, which consists of five pairs of V-shaped and one pair of J-shaped chromosomes. Cytological material was prepared by an acetoorcein technique and by C-, G-, and N-banding methods. The rod-shaped chromosomes of grimshawi contained approximately 45% heterochromatin as determined by differential staining with Giemsa. Each chromosome of cyrtoloma consists of a euchromatic arm and a heterochromatic arm; the total heterochromatin of the diploid set averaged between 55 and 60%. These measurements approximate the amounts of satellite DNA reported for these two species. Prophase and metaphase figures from both meiotic and mitotic divisions are shown.     

The proteins of polytene chromosomes of Drosophila hydei

It is reported that chromatin can be prepared from highly purified polytene nuclei from the salivary glands of third instar larvae of Drosophila hydei; such chromatin differs from that of diploid nuclei mainly by deficiencies in certain nonhistone chromosomal proteins. It is suggested that these proteins are important components of constitutive heterochromatin, which is severely underrepresented in polytene chromosomes. Chromosome morphology, including the pattern of induced puffs, is maintained throughout the mass isolation of glands and sucrose gradient purification of nuclei, as indicated by studies on temperature-shocked and control larvae. No significant alteration in the chromosomal proteins following puff induction by heat shock could be detected on analysis of the isolated protein fractions by disc gel electrophoresis. More sensitive techniques must be developed to study the apparent rearrangement or accumulation of protein at puff sites, and to elucidate the role of this protein in gene activation.     

The Balbiani ring and the polytene chromosomes of Drosophila bicornuta.

A study of the BR1 and of the most prominent puffs during larval development and after in vitro ecdysterone treatment, as well as of the banding pattern and inverted tandem chromosomal duplications of the salivary gland chromosomes of Drosophila bicornuta, is presented in this report. These data are compared and discussed with those of D. auraria and D. serrata, two other montium species.     

A photographic map of Drosophila madeirensis polytene chromosomes.

A photographic map of salivary gland polytene chromosomes of Drosophila madeirensis has been constructed showing homologies and differences with respect to the standard gene arrangement of D. subobscura. Only two paracentric inversions in the X chromosome and some slight minor dissimilarities of one or two bands in the autosomes differentiate the chromosomes of these species.     

Electron microscopical analysis of Drosophila polytene chromosomes

Data are presented of electron microscopic (EM) analysis of consecutive developmental stages of Drosophila melanogaster complex puffs, formed as a result of simultaneous decondensation of several bands. EM mapping principles proposed by us permitted more exact determination of the banding patterns of 19 regions in which 31 puffs develop. It is shown that 20 of them develop as a result of synchronous decondensation of two bands, 7 of three and 4 of one band. Three cases of two-band puff formation when one or both bands undergo partial decondensation are described. In the 50CF, 62CE, 63F and 71CF regions puffing zones are located closely adjacent to each other but the decondensation of separate band groups occurs at different puff stages (PS). These data are interpreted as activation of independently regulated DNA sequences. The decondensation of two or three adjacent bands during formation of the majority of the puffs occurs simultaneously in the very first stages of their development. It demonstrates synchronous activation of the material of several bands presumably affected by a common inductor. Bands adjacent to puffing centres also lose their clarity as the puff develops, probably due to "passive" decondensation connected with puff growth. The morphological data obtained suggest a complex genetic organisation of many puffs.     

N-banding in polytene chromosomes of Chironomus and Drosophila

The N-banding patterns of the polytene chromosomes of Drosophila melanogaster, Chironomus melanotus, Ch. th. thummi and Ch. th. thummi x Ch. th. piger were studied. In Chironomus the polytene N-banding patterns correspond to the polytene puffing patterns. This is revealed by comparison of the puffing and N-banding patterns of identical chromosomes. Size and staining intensity of the N-bands reflect the size of the puffs as shown by puff induction. There is no evidence that the N-bands are also located in Chironomus heterochromatin or are restricted to the nucleolar organizer regions. In Drosophila the -heterochromatin is strongly N-positive, whereas the -heterochromatin, as well as the Chironomus heterochromatin is not N-banded. Contrary to Chironomus, the puffs in Drosophila polytene chromosomes do not give rise selectively to well stained N-bands. — The N-banding method is interpreted to stain specifically non-histone protein which is (1) accumulated in genetically active chromosome regions and (2) present in a specific type of heterochromatin (-heterochromatin of Drosophila).     

Electron microscopical analysis of Drosophila polytene chromosomes

Replication studies on prophasic human Y chromosomes reveal 4 early replicating segments in the euchromatic portion. The distal segment of Yp replicates first. After replication of the euchromatic part is almost finished 3 to 5 segments start replication in the heterochromatic portion of Yq. These segments exhibit considerable intraindividual variation with respect to the origin of onset of replication. While the location of these bands — once they are differentiated — is fixed within one individual, the number of these bands varies interindividually.Dedicated to Professor Dr. Ulrich Wolf on the occasion of his 50the birthday     

Electron microscopical analysis of Drosophila polytene chromosomes

Mapping of 16 regions of polytene chromosomes in which 18 one-band puffs develop was carried out with the use of electron microscopy (EM). In most cases a uniform decondensation of the whole band was observed. However, there were examples in which only a part of the band was activated (three puffs) or its right and left parts decondensed simultaneously (three puffs). Splitting of the band into two parts with their further decondensation was also found (one puff). This suggests structural and functional complexity of the bands. On the basis of the data obtained here and those published earlier, a classification of 52 puffs by the number of bands participating in their formation is given. Four classes numbering 22, 21, 7, 2 puffs, developing from 1, 2, 3 and 4 bands, respectively, are revealed. The data show that active chromosome regions are rather diverse in both the pattern of decondensation and expansion of the decondensed region, thus providing evidence of the informational complexity of the majority of active regions.     

Electron microscopical analysis of Drosophila polytene chromosomes

An electron microscopic (EM) analysis was performed on regions of Drosophila melanogaster polytene chromosomes that contain inserted DNA segments of 19 and 8 kb. These segments had been inserted by P-elementmediated transformation. The 19 kb segment includes both the Drosophila hsp70 gene fused to the Escherichia coli -galactosidase gene and the rosy gene (Lis et al. 1983). This insert generates a new moderate-size band at the 9D4-9E1-2 region in polytene chromosomes. Upon heat shock, a puff originates from a portion of the new band. The 8 kb segment includes the Sgs7 and Sgs3 genes (Richards et al. 1983). This insert generates very diffuse thin bands that decondense at the stage of activation of the Sgs genes to produce wide interbands or small puffs. In all of the above cases, the insertion appears to occur at interband regions, and the genetically complex DNA segments that are inserted generate only a single detectable band.     

Genetic selection of meiotic and mitotic recombinant yeast artificial chromosomes.

We have developed a genetic screen for the isolation of larger or smaller recombinant yeast artificial chromosomes derived from overlapping YACs. Integration plasmids were used to modify the TRP1 and URA3 auxotrophic markers present respectively on the left and right vector arms of one of the parental YACs. Diploids containing the two parental YACs were studied through meiosis and mitosis. Tetrad analysis revealed the presence of meiotic recombinant YACs at a frequency comparable with what is expected for yeast DNA (about 3 kb/cM). More direct genetic selection of diploids on -TRP-LYS synthetic media in the presence of 5-fluoro-orotic acid (5-FOA), led to the isolation of mitotic recombinant YACs at a high frequency. Analysis of these yeast cells by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, confirmed the loss of both parental artificial chromosomes, and the specific retention of a larger or smaller recombinant YAC.     

The selective digestion of polytene and mitotic chromosomes of Drosophila melanogaster by the Alu I and Hae III restriction endonucleases

Polytene and mitotic chromosomes of Drosophila melanogaster were treated with either Alu I or Hae III restriction endonucleases. Subsequent staining with the DNA-specific fluorochrome ethidium bromide showed that these enzymes are capable of selectively digesting chromosomal DNA in fixed cytological preparations, as previously shown in mammalian metaphase chromosomes. Alu I or Hae III digestion made possible the localization in situ of some highly repetitive DNAs in both polytene and mitotic chromosomes, while only Alu I permitted the localization of the 5S RNA genes on the polytene chromosomes of D. melanogaster.     

The organization of DNA in the mitotic and polytene chromosomes of Sciara coprophila

The organization of DNA in the mitotic metaphase and polytene chromosomes of the fungus gnat, Sciara coprophila, has been studied using base-specific DNA ligands, including anti-nucleoside antibodies. The DNA of metaphase and polytene chromosomes reacts with AT-specific probes (quinacrine, DAPI, Hoechst 33258 and anti-adenosine) and to a somewhat lesser extent with GC-specific probes (mithramycin, chromomycin A₃ and anticytidine). In virtually every band of the polytene chromosomes chromomycin A₃ fluorescence is almost totally quenched by counterstaining with the AT-specific ligand methyl green. This indicates that GC base pairs in most bands are closely interspersed with AT base pairs. The only exceptions are band IV-8A3 and the nucleolus organizer on the X. In contrast, quinacrine and DAPI fluorescence in every band is only slightly quenched by counterstaining with the GC-specific ligand actinomycin D. Thus, each band contains a moderate proportion of AT-rich DNA sequences with few interspersed GC base pairs. — The C-bands in mitotic and polytene chromosomes can be visualized by Giemsa staining after differential extraction of DNA and those in polytene chromosomes by the use of base-specific fluorochromes or antibodies without prior extraction of DNA. C-bands are located in the centromeric region of every chromosome, and the telomeric region of some. The C-bands in the polytene chromosomes contain AT-rich DNA sequences without closely interspered GC base pairs and lack relatively GC-rich sequences. However, one C-band in the centromeric region of chromosome IV contains relatively GC-rich sequences with closely interspersed AT base pairs. — C-bands make up less than 1% of polytene chromosomes compared to nearly 20% of mitotic metaphase chromosomes. The C-bands in polytene chromosomes are detectable with AT-specific or GC-specific probes while those in metaphase chromosomes are not. Thus, during polytenization there is selective replication of highly AT-rich and relatively GC-rich sequences and underreplication of the remainder of the DNA sequences in the constitutive heterochromatin.     

The polytene chromosomes of Drosophila triauraria and D. quadraria, sibling species of D. auraria.

The polytene chromosomes of Drosophila triauraria and D. quadraria, two of the sibling species of D. auraria, were examined. The polytene chromosomes of all three species exhibit very clear homology. Unlike the stock of D. auraria that we studied, D. triauraria and D. quadraria carry heterozygous paracentric inversions. In both species, 2R and 3R are the arms where these inversions are concentrated. In addition, in D. quadraria, the 3L chromosome arm is very complicated because of heterozygous inversions. The mode of inheritance of these rearrangements was studied. A homozygous strain for all chromosome arms of D. triauraria was isolated, while a homozygous strain was obtained only for the arms X, 2L, 3L, and 4 of D. quadraria. Like D. auraria, both species show a large number of inverted tandem duplications in the paired condition, even in the chromosomes of their hybrids. Small deletions were also detected, one of which, in D. triauraria, is homozygous terminal. Hypotheses are discussed concerning the relationships of the species and the existence of inverted tandem duplications.     

Duplications in the polytene chromosomes of Drosophila auraria

A study of the salivary gland chromosomes of two strains of Drosophila auraria has revealed a suprisingly high number of inverted tandem duplications and one triplication. The possible origin and significance of these are discussed.     

Grades of chromatid organisation in mitotic and meiotic chromosomes

The different grades of chromatid organisation recognised in mitotic and meiotic chromosomes are interpreted in terms of a new master/slave model, in which a linear strand of master loci has an associated slave assembly of chromomeres. These are joined by labile interchromomeric linkages, which might be short overlap segments of single-stranded DNA. Each slave assembly, or chromomere, is considered to give rise to a lateral slave loop. The model is able to explain how transitions between the four basic types of lampbrush organisation could occur at mitosis and meiosis, how the presence or absence of transitions at early first meiotic prophase may decide whether or not synapsis may take place, and why it should be restricted to two homologues at any one point. It provides a basis for understanding how precision hybrid DNA cross-over events involving single DNA molecules could be achieved in a regular, repeatable and controlled fashion, between such relatively massive structures as chromosomes, and how resolution of the primary exchange events could lead to the development of chiasmata. It also suggests a new way of thinking about the mechanisms underlying the separation and rotation of chromosome arms which occurs during the diplotene and diakinesis stages of most chiasmate species. Semi-conservative DNA replication, iso-labelling and breakage and reunion studies which suggest only one axial strand are also explicable in terms of the model, as is the occurrence of side-arm bridges, involving two visible “sub-chromatid” strands, at anaphase stages.     

Grades of chromatid organisation in mitotic and meiotic chromosomes

It is suggested that not one, but four different grades of lampbrush chromosome organisation characterise different stages of mitosis and meiosis: (a) where a single chromatid organises symmetrically disposed lateral loops (second meiotic prophase), (b) where the two sister chromatids of a visibly single chromosome organise lateral loops in a laterally asymmetrical fashion, both sets of loops projecting from the same side and away from the face used, in meiosis, for pairing (early first meiotic prophase), (c) where the lateral loops organised by two visibly separate sister chromatids are symmetrically disposed on either side of the chromosome and project away from each other (mitotic prophase and late first meiotic prophase), (d) where the organisation is as in (c) but chromatid axes are intimately fused and form a visibly single strand (female amphibian diffuse diplotene).