Batch fecundity and spawning frequency of invasive Hemiculter leucisculus (Basilewsky, 1855) in Erhai Lake,China

Hemiculter leucisculus are multiple spawners with indeterminate fecundity, although previous fecundity estimates have assumed a determinate spawning pattern. Batch fecundity and spawning frequency of H. leucisculus were studied in Erhai Lake, China, in which the fish, as an exotic species, has become a successful colonizer. Spawning frequency was 16.05 %, as determined from the percent of females with postovulatory follicles 12 to 36 h old during the peak reproductive period (from May 27 to August 8). The average interval between spawning was 6.2 days and there were more than 16 total spawning batches during the peak reproductive period. The average batch fecundity (mean ± SD) was 11,934?±?5,921 hydrated oocytes in 40 females (standard length or SL: 9.1–14.4 cm), while relative batch fecundity was 560?±?137 eggs g^?1 wet weight. The total potential annual fecundity was approximately 190,944 oocytes over the whole spawning season and was much higher than the estimated standing stock (31,585 oocytes) of yolked oocytes (36 females, SL: 9.5–16.2 cm) at the beginning of the spawning season in April 2010. This high annual fecundity is likely to have contributed to successful invasion of Erhai Lake by H. leucisculus.     

Seasonal influence on reproduction in chimpanzees of gombe national park

Although wild chimpanzees are not seasonal breeders, there are seasonal effects on several aspects of chimpanzee reproduction. I examined the seasonal incidence of anogenital swelling in cyclic, pregnant, and acyclic female chimpanzees in Gombe National Park, May 1975–April 1992, and surveyed important reproductive events to determine whether there is a seasonal effect. I analyzed data by season (wet vs. dry) and seasonal quarter;early dry season = May–July;late dry = August–October;early wet = November–January;late wet = February–April. When data for the 17 years are combined, the percentage of females in each reproductive state remains consistent throughout the year. In a given month, 30–35% of subjects were in the cyclic category, 11–15% were pregnant, and 54–61% were acyclic. Cyclic females showed full swelling more often during the late dry season. Pregnant females exhibited anogenital swelling more often during the late dry and early wet seasons. Acyclic females also exhibited a seasonal effect with more anogenital swelling during the late dry season. There is no seasonal difference in frequency of live births (dry, 20;wet, 23). However, the timing of conception showed a seasonal effect (dry, 32;wet, 16). Consistent with earlier reports, the onset of postpartum cycles is highly seasonal;30 occurred during dry season, 9 during wet season. The occurrence of first full swellings for young females is also concentrated in the late dry season. It appears that the dry season is a time of great change for Gombe chimpanzee reproductive physiology. Previous studies indicated that seasonal changes in food availability play a role in increasing group size during the dry season and social contact between females can enhance cyclicity. Accordingly, I suggest that seasonal changes in diet may play a role, either directly (food content) or indirectly (social contact), to alter reproductive physiology.     

Reproduction of the large fruit-eating bat Artibeus lituratus (Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae) in a Brazilian Atlantic forest area

In this study we investigated the male testicular activity and the reproductive condition of females in relation to their external reproductive characteristics (pregnant, lactating, post-lactating) in the phyllostomid bat Artibeus lituratus (Olfers, 1818). Five hundred and twenty six individuals were examined (197 males and 329 females) in the period December 2001 to May 2003. Throughout the study most males displayed large scrotal testes. Thirty-three males were randomly selected for histological examination at various times throughout the year and were found to have spermatogenic testes. The reproductive characteristics of the females indicated that they were reproductively active mainly during the wet season. Pregnancy occurs at the end of the dry season and parturition in the wet season. Most individuals captured after this season, mainly the females, were sexually immature. Our results suggest a seasonal monoestrous reproductive pattern for the species; however, adult males being fertile throughout the year could suggest polyoestry. Seasonal polyoestry is a possibility. There was, however, no evidence that females had more than one pregnancy per year.     

Abundance and Leaf Damage Caused by Gall‐Inducing Insects in a Mexican Tropical Dry Forest1

We evaluated the temporal and spatial patterns of abundance and the amount of damage caused by gall‐inducing insects (GII) in deciduous and riparian habitats in a seasonal tropical dry forest in Mexico. Plants occurring in these habitats differ in their phenology and moisture availability. Deciduous habitats are seasonal and xeric, while riparian habitats are aseasonal and mesic. We found 37 GII species and each one was associated with a specific plant species. In total, 19 species (51.3%) were present in deciduous habitats, 13 species (35.2%) in riparian habitats, and only 5 species (13.5%) occurred in both. Abundance and leaf damage by GII were greater in deciduous than in riparian habitats during the wet season. For each GII species that occurred in both habitats, host plant species supported greater abundance and leaf damage by GII in deciduous habitats during the wet season. These results indicate a greater association of GII species with host plants in deciduous than in riparian habitats during the wet season. In riparian habitats, 11 plant species (61.1%) had greater density of GII in the dry than in the wet season. Similarly, leaf damage by GII was significantly greater in the dry than in the wet season in riparian habitats for 12 plant species (66.7%). Dry forest plants of riparian habitats presented two peaks of leaf‐flushing: GII colonized leaves produced in the first peak at the beginning of the wet season, and accumulated or recolonized leaves in the second peak at the beginning of the dry season. The levels of leaf damage by GII detected in this study in the rainy season were considerably higher than those obtained for folivorous insects in other neotropical forests, suggesting that this GII guild might have an important impact on their host plant species in this tropical community.     

The feral pig (Sus scrofa,Suidae) in Cocos Island,Costa Rica: composition of its diet,reproductive state and genetics

Feral pigs (Sus scrofa) cause different kinds of damage specially on oceanic islands. Pigs were introduced at Cocos Island, Costa Rica, during 1793 and bred successfully. I analyzed feral pigs diet, reproductive state, genetics and the effects of predation, in order to gather data on their ecology and impact on certain Cocos Island communities. The diet was studied, during a dry and a wet period, through stomach contents. The genetic variability was determined through PCR analysis on tissue samples which were taken from feral (Cocos Island) and domestic (mainland) pig ear-lobes. Pigs at Cocos were omnivorous, the most important diet category in both seasons was fruits. More pigs consumed fruits during the wet season but the fruits did occupy more somuch volume during the dry season. Feral pigs did not disperse exotic seeds nor prey on animal endemic species. 56% of the hunted pigs were males and 44% were females. From females in reproductive age, 46% were pregnant or suckling, and the average number of fetuses in a litter was 4.4. I confirmed a reproductive peak during January/February but could not demonstrate a reproductive peak during June/July. The low fetuses number per litter could be related with some levels of stress. The genetic variability for all the evaluated parameters within the feral population was low but not as low as expected. I suggest a compensatory mechanism were the inbreeding depression reduces consanguinity and a species susceptible to stocastic, demographic or environmental factors turns to be an adapted species with high resilience.     

Activities and feeding behavior of free-ranging pregnant baboons

The activities and feeding behavior of pregnant baboons, Papio cynocephalus,were studied in two free-ranging groups in Amboseli National Park, Kenya. Both the environmental conditions and the age of their fetuses influenced females’ activity budgets and feeding behavior. Females fed more and rested less during the dry season than during the wet season, and most females spent progressively more time feeding and less time grooming than expected (based upon the amount of recent rainfall) as their fetuses matured. During the wet season, females also devoted significantly greater proportions of feeding time to consumption of grass blades, leaves, and flowers and significantly smaller proportions of their feeding time to feeding upon seeds, corms, and fruit. As their fetuses became older, the proportion of time spent feeding upon seeds increased, and the proportion of time spent feeding upon grass blades and fruit declined.     

Estimation of the fertility rates of Japanese wild boars (Sus scrofa leucomystax) using fetuses and corpora albicans

Effective population control of Japanese wild boar (Sus scrofa leucomystax) requires reliable information about population dynamics. Fertility rate is the fundamental component of reproduction to evaluate population dynamics. However, little is known regarding the fertility rate of Japanese wild boar. The traditional hunting practices make it difficult to obtain pregnant females and calculate the fertility rate by checking fetuses as is performed in other countries. Therefore, we focused on the corpora albicans (CA) as the CA remains in the ovaries of postpartum females after pregnancy. This study aimed to evaluate the utility of CA and estimate the fertility rate of Japanese wild boars using CA. Histological analysis of ovaries enabled us to discriminate type 1 CA, which remains for 1 year after breeding. Type 1 CA is a superior indicator compared with lactation in the non-pregnancy season because it allows verification of postpartum females over a long period. The fertility rate was calculated by the combination of pregnant and postpartum females using fetuses and type 1 CA from April to November. The fertility rate of the females captured after the second pregnancy season was 90.3 % during the pregnancy period and 100 % during the non-pregnancy period. The high fertility rate of adult females suggests that intensive adult female harvesting is needed. Our new method to determine fertility rates contributes to developing a monitoring system to adequately control Japanese wild boar population.     

Diet and food preference of the waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus defassa) in the Pendjari National Park, Benin

This study investigated composition and selectivity in diet for waterbuck in the Pendjari National Park in north-western Benin, through the use of micrographic analysis of faecal samples. Three plant species ( Panicum anabaptistum, Echinochloa stagnina and Andropogon gayanus ) were regularly consumed all year round. Meanwhile, three other species (i.e., Hyparrhenia involucrata, Acroceras amplectens and Oryza barthii ) are mostly found in its diet during the beginning of the rainy season. During the dry season, long life grasses (>40%) and tree forage (about 35%) were the most dominant life form in the diet. On the contrary at the beginning of the rainy season, annual species (> 50%) were dominant. In conclusion, the waterbuck has a grazer regime when plant species are abundant and a mixed diet during the dry season. Waterbuck's food niche breath, defined by Hespenheide [ Ecology and Evolution of communities . Harvard Univ. Press, 1975], was lower than 1, implying this antelope does not eat all food categories in a proportional way. Shannon diversity index showed that the diet was more diversified during the rainy season and less diversified at the end of the dry season. Based on [ Ecology , 64 (1983), 1297] diet selectivity index, waterbuck exerted a positive selection on the major graminaceous species.     

Sperm storage in a seasonally reproducing African vespertilionid, the banana bat (Pipistrellus nanus) from Malawi

Spermatogenesis in the banana bat ( Pipistrellus nanus ) from southern Malawi began in the hot, wet season (February to April) and spermatozoa were released to the cauda epididymides at the beginning of the cool, dry season (May). Mating occurred between mid-June and early July, in the middle of the cool, dry season. After mating, spermatozoa were stored by the female until ovulation in August and by the male until at least September. The period of female sperm storage effectively lengthened the reproductive cycle so that early spermatogenesis occurred during the second half of one hot, wet season and births at the beginning of the following hot, wet season. During the period of sperm storage, males and females roosted together and group membership was labile, suggesting that the mating system may be promiscuous (both males and females mating with more than one partner) and that sperm competition may occur. The similarity between the chronology of reproduction in Malawi, Kenya, and South Africa leads us to propose that sperm storage occurs at all three localities.     

Age‐ and sex‐related differences in the spatial ecology of a dichromatic tropical python (Morelia viridis)

Abstract: Despite outnumbering their temperate counterparts, tropical snake species have been poorly studied. Yet, the few tropical species that have been studied show a variety of behavioural traits beyond those described in temperate species. Here we reveal both age and sexual differences in the movements of tropical green pythons (Morelia viridis: Pythonidae). We radio‐tracked 27 individuals (17 females and 10 males) for up to 18 months, locating individuals during both the day and night. The home range size for adult females (mean ± SE of 6.21 ± 1.85 ha) was correlated with snout–vent length. Neither adult males nor juveniles had a stable home range. Adult females had stable home ranges that overlapped considerably with those of other females and yellow individuals. Multiple radio‐tracked adult males passed through the territory of radio‐tracked adult females during the study. Females of all sizes were more likely to change position each day than males. There were no differences between the sexes or size categories in the distances moved in most months, although the variation in movement distances was higher in the dry season than during the wet season. In the wet season (January–March) movement distances increased and these were size‐ and sex‐related. This increased activity may be associated with mate searching. Males of M. viridis may maximize their rate of encountering mature females by roaming rather than maintaining a home range. Juvenile green pythons moved distances equal to adult snakes in most months despite their comparatively small size.     

Life History of Cercopithecus mitis stuhlmanni in the Kakamega Forest, Kenya

Comparative data from wild populations are necessary to understand the evolution of primate life history strategies. We present demographic data from a 29-yr longitudinal study of 8 groups of individually recognized wild blue monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis stuhlmanni). We provide estimates of life history variables and a life table for females. Most females had their first infant at 7 yr. The mean interbirth interval was 28 mo, and decreased from 31 to 18 mo if the first infant died within a year. Interbirth intervals did not differ according to infant sex, but females had longer intervals after their first vs. subsequent births. Infant mortality was 23% and did not differ strongly by sex or mother’s parity. Maximal female lifespan was 32.5–34.5 yr. Across the lifespan, both survivorship and fecundity showed typical primate patterns. Survivorship was lowest in infants, leveled off among juveniles, and then decreased gradually with increasing age in later life. Fecundity was highest among young females and decreased among older females. Births were seasonal, with 64% occurring within 3 mo at the end of the dry season and beginning of the wet season. Survival to 12 mo was higher for infants born during drier months. Birth season timing is plausibly related to thermoregulation of infants, weanling foods, or maternal energy demand. Blue monkeys are a forest-dependent species with a very slow life history and relatively low immature and adult mortality rates compared to closely related guenons living in open habitats. Even among cercopithecines as a whole, they appear to have an exceptionally slow life history relative to body size. Differences in life history “speed” between blue monkeys and their close relatives seem to be related to lower juvenile and adult mortality in forests relative to more open habitats.     

Dietary and dental variations in the genus Lemur, with comments concerning dietary-dental correlations among Malagasy primates.

Field studies of feeding in the lemur subspecies Lemur fulvus rufus and L. f. mayottensis have revealed that feeding patterns within a single species can be markedly different, both regionally and seasonally. Thus L. f. rufus is a dietary specialist (3 plant species accounting for 80-90% of feeding time), and is highly folivorous, especially during the dry season (90% of feeding time spent eating leaves during the dry season, and 53% during the wet season). On the other hand, L. f. mayottensis is more generalized dietarily (the parts of 12 plant species accounting for 90% of feeding time), and is primarily frugivorous (64% of feeding time spent eating fruit, with a monthly maximum during the wet season of 79%. In both these respects, L. f. mayottensis resembles L. catta are more closely thant it does L. f. rufus. When size differences are corrected for, Lemur fulvus rufus has significantly longer second lower molar shearing crests than does L. f. mayottensis. Other folivorous Malagasy strepsirhines also tend to have long shearing crests than frugivorous forms. Some data on cheirogaleines also suggest that the more insectivorous species have better developed molar crests than frugivorous species. Some apparent exceptions to this pattern are noted, especially for Lemur catta, which in certain functional respects dentally more closely resembles L. f. rufus than L. f. mayottensis. The problems of dietary classifications are discussed.     

Social and environmental factors affecting fecal glucocorticoids in wild, female white-faced capuchins (Cebus capucinus)

Assessing glucocorticoid levels in free-ranging nonhuman primates provides a means to determine the social and environmental stress load for individuals. We investigated the effect of four proximate variables--reproductive state, season, male rank stability, and dominance rank--on the level of fecal glucocorticoids (cortisol metabolites) in eight adult female white-faced capuchin monkeys in Costa Rica. Reproductive state, season, and male rank stability significantly affected fecal glucocorticoids while female dominance rank did not. Cortisol levels were significantly higher in pregnant females as compared with lactating or other reproductive states. Cortisol levels were higher among females during the dry season compared with the wet season, suggesting a metabolic adaptation to maintain homeostasis in drier, hotter conditions. Although unfamiliar males present a greater infanticidal threat than do familiar ones, we found that females experienced higher glucocorticoid levels during male rank instability events, regardless of whether the alpha male role was taken over by a familiar or an unfamiliar male. Our findings provide important benchmark and comparative data for future studies on the variables that affect glucocorticoid levels in this species and other mammals.     

Pituitary and ovarian responses to luteinizing-hormone-releasing hormone during pregnancy and after parturition in brown hares (Lepus europaeus)

Female hares were given an i.v. injection of 5 micrograms luteinizing-hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) between Days 7 and 19 (n = 21), 20 and 33 (n = 17) and 34 and 41 (n = 17) of pregnancy, and in the 3 days after parturition (n = 16). Whatever the stage of pregnancy, the LHRH injection induced a release of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and an acute secretion of progesterone; these hormonal responses increased significantly during pregnancy, to reach values similar to those observed in nonpregnant, nonpseudopregnant females during the breeding season in the 3 days after parturition. However, the release of LH remained monophasic in pregnant and post-partum females, in contrast to the unmated females during the reproductive season, in which there was a biphasic profile. The proportion of ovulating females after LHRH treatment was approximately 60% at the beginning and end of pregnancy; and, after parturition, fell to 23% between Days 20 and 33. After Day 33, the pituitary response to LHRH was significantly higher in ovulating than in nonovulating females. At the beginning of pregnancy, 67% of females aborted after LHRH injection; after Day 20, the incidence of abortion decreased significantly and was 0% from Day 34. The amplitude and duration of progesterone secretion by the new corpora lutea resulting from ovulation after LHRH injection were similar to those of corpora lutea induced in nonpregnant females during the breeding season.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Population status and habitat preference of Soemmerring’s gazelle in Alledeghi Wildlife Reserve,Eastern Ethiopia

This study was undertaken to determine the current population size, structure and habitat preference of Soemmerring's gazelle [Nanger soemmerringii (Cretzschmar 1828)] in the Alledeghi Wildlife Reserve, NE Ethiopia. Animals were counted, both during dry and wet seasons, along 12 line transects each in three habitat types (grassland, tree‐scattered grassland and bushland) in 2015/16. Habitat type had nonsignificant effect on mean population density of Soemmerring's gazelle, but wet season mean density was significantly higher than dry season mean density. Estimated weighted mean (±95% CI) population density of the species in the reserve was 1.90 (±0.17) and 5.99 (±0.370) individuals/km² during the dry and wet seasons, respectively. Total population size of the species in the Alledeghi Wildlife Reserve was estimated at 826 ± 77 and 2,562 ± 158 individuals during the dry and wet seasons, respectively. Over half of the total population of Soemmerring's gazelle was represented by adult females during both seasons. Seasonal habitat preference of Soemmerring's gazelle was statistically significant, with greater preference for grassland habitat during wet season and for bushland habitat during dry season. In conclusion, this study has provided valuable data that will be used as a baseline for future population monitoring.     

Leaf shedding and weather in tropical dry-seasonal forest shape the phenology of fungi – Lessons from two years of monthly surveys in southwestern Panama

In the present study, conducted in a secondary dry-seasonal forest in the pacific lowlands of southwestern Panama over 2 years, fungal diversity is linked to plant phenology, litter, and climatic data. Agaricales fungi showed maximum species richness at the beginning of rainy seasons, probably due to the important litter accumulation during the dry season and the increase in humidity favoring fungal growth. Species richness declined during the wet season possibly due to torrential rains, moulds, and decreasing availability of nutrients. Occurrence of foliar pathogenic microfungi correlated negatively with flushing of new leaves at the beginning of the rainy season. Their incidence increased during the wet season and remained high during the dry season. Synchronization of leaf shedding in most tree species significantly reduced the yearly incidence of foliar pathogenic fungi causing an annual turn-over of fungal pathogens that probably contributes to maintain a high diversity of plant pathogenic species.     

Costs of egg caring in the skink, Mabuya longicaudata

Why do most animal species not provide parental care to their eggs or progeny? The “cost” hypothesis suggests that parental care can reduce food intake, probable survivorship, and/or subsequent fecundity of the reproductive female, and parental care is not adaptive unless it is balanced by considerable fitness trade-offs. Therefore, parental care would be expected to evolve most often in species in which such costs are minor or insignificant. Although parental care has been reported in more than 140 species of reptiles, few records unambiguously demonstrate the cost of parental care. In the current study, I report the “costs” of maternal activities and survivorship, as well as egg attendance times, and within- and between-seasonal body size variations, of females of Mabuya longicaudata after engaging in parental care. I used those data to test whether parental care necessarily entailed large costs to mother lizards. The proportion of nests guarded decreased with time after eggs were laid, with most females remaining at the nest for at least 1 week, but then some beginning to leave. The loss of mass by females over the first week of egg guarding was on average balanced by a gain in mass during subsequent foraging bouts. The snout–vent length (SVL), body mass (BM), recapture (survival) rates, fecundity, timing of a second clutch, and clutch frequencies of females that exhibited long-term parental care (more than 28 days; mean, 31.6 ± 2.2 days) did not significantly differ from that of females that showed short-term parental care (9～16 days; mean, 12.5 ± 2.3 days). Thus, my data indicate that intense parental care over a long period does not necessarily entail major energy costs for the mother in terms of SVL, BM, recapture (survival) rates, or fecundity.     

Diet of the gracile mouse opossum Gracilinanus agilis (Didelphimorphia: Didelphidae) in a neotropical savanna: intraspecific variation and resource selection

Investigation of the effect of endogenous and exogenous factors on the diet of animals is necessary for a better understanding of their feeding habits. This approach can provide relevant information on the autoecology of a species and its ecological interactions. We investigated the composition and intraspecific variation in the diet of the marsupial Gracilinanus agilis in areas of dry woodland forests (i.e., cerradão) in the Cerrado of Central Brazil, taking into consideration the availability of prey (arthropods) in the environment. We found insects, spiders, birds, and fruits in the scats of G. agilis. Insects (orders Hymenoptera, Isoptera, Hemiptera, and Coleoptera) and fruits were the most frequently consumed resources. Males fed more heavily on insects than females did, whereas during the warm–wet season (October to April), the reproductive females fed on insects more than the nonreproductive females did. On the other hand, the consumption of fruits and vertebrates did not vary between seasons, sexes, or according to female reproductive condition. Moreover, reproductive females fed more frequently on ants and beetles than nonreproductive females did. We also detected both positive (for Isoptera and Hemiptera) and negative (for Hymenoptera) selection of insects during the cool–dry season, whereas in the warm–wet season, these resources were consumed according to their availability in the environment. Our study revealed that G. agilis is an insectivore–omnivore species, but fruits also are a relevant part of its diet. This marsupial seemed to select their prey qualitatively according to its energy demands and nutritional requirements.     

Seed Dispersal Modes of the Sandstone Plateau Vegetation of the Middle Caquetá River Region,Colombian Amazonia1

We characterized the dispersal spectra and phenology of 298 vascular plant species of the sandstone plateaus of Colombian Amazonia. Dispersal modes were determined by the morphology of dispersion units, personal observations on fruit consumption, and an extensive literature review. We obtained the number of species per dispersal mode for the sandstone plateaus and for two recognized vegetation types: open‐herbaceous vegetation and low forest‐shrub vegetation. Dispersal modes were assigned to 295 plant species. Animals dispersed the highest percentage of species (46.6%), while the percentage of autochorous and anemochorous species was 29.4 and 23 percent, respectively. The dispersal spectrum of the low forest‐shrub vegetation type, based on the coverage of every species, showed that percentages of anemochorous (40.2%) and zoochorous species (37.8%) were similar. Autochory was the most important seed dispersal mode of the open‐herbaceous vegetation (60%). Birds were the principal group of potential dispersers (58.9%) of zoochorous species and reptiles the least important. We found two marked fruiting peaks, one from the end of the dry season to the beginning of the wet season and the second one from the beginning to the middle of the dry season. Our results showed that besides the differences in the vegetation structure and floristic composition between the sandstone plateaus and the adjacent tall forest, there also exist differences in the dispersal spectra and the fruiting rhythms.     

Variation in evergreen and deciduous species leaf phenology in Assam, India

In the present study phenological activities such as leaf and shoot growth, leaf pool size and leaf fall were observed for 3 years (March 2007–March 2010) in 19 tree species (13 evergreen and 6 deciduous species) in a wet tropical forest in Assam, India. The study area receives total annual average rainfall of 2,318 mm of which most rain fall (>70 %) occurs during June–September. Both the plant groups varied significantly on most of the shoot and leaf phenology parameters. In general, growth in deciduous species initiated before the evergreen species and showed a rapid shoot growth, leaf recruitment and leaf expansion compared to evergreen species. Leaf recruitment period was significantly different between evergreen (4.2 months) and deciduous species (6.8 months). Shoot elongation rate was also significantly different for evergreen and deciduous species (0.09 vs. 0.14 cm day^?1 shoot^?1). Leaf number per shoot was greater for deciduous species than for evergreen species (34 vs. 16 leaves). The average leaf life span of evergreen species (328 ± 32 days) was significantly greater than that of deciduous species (205 ± 16 days). The leaf fall in deciduous species was concentrated during the winter season (Nov–Feb), whereas evergreens retained their leaves until the next growing season. Although the climate of the study area supports evergreen forests, the strategies of the deciduous species such as faster leaf recruitment rate, longer leaf recruitment time, faster shoot elongation rate during favorable growing season and short leaf life span perhaps allows them to coexist with evergreen species that have the liberty to photosynthesize round the year. Variations in phenological strategies perhaps help to reduce the competition among evergreen and deciduous species for resources in these forests and enable the coexistence of both the groups.