Overview of salmon stock enhancement in southeast Alaska and compatibility with maintenance of hatchery and wild stocks

Modern salmon hatcheries in Southeast Alaska were established in the 1970s when wild runs were at record low levels. Enhancement programs were designed to help rehabilitate depressed fisheries and to protect wild salmon stocks through detailed planning and permitting processes that included focused policies on genetics, pathology, and management. Hatcheries were located away from significant wild stocks, local sources were used to develop hatchery broodstocks, and juveniles are marked so management can target fisheries on hatchery fish. Initially conceived as a state-run system, the Southeast Alaska (SEAK) program has evolved into a private, non-profit concept centered around regional aquaculture associations run by fishermen and other stakeholders that pay for hatchery operations through landing fees and sale of fish. Today there are 15 production hatcheries and 2 research hatcheries in SEAK that between 2005 and 2009 released from 474 to 580 million (average 517 million) juvenile salmon per year. During this same period commercial harvest of salmon in the region ranged from 28 to 71 million salmon per year (average 49 million). Contributions of hatchery-origin fish to this harvest respectively averaged 2%, 9%, 19%, 20%, and 78% for pink, sockeye, Chinook, coho, and chum salmon. Both hatchery and wild salmon stocks throughout much of Alaska have experienced high marine survivals since the 1980s and 1990s resulting in record harvests over the past two decades. Although some interactions between hatchery salmon and wild salmon are unavoidable including increasing concerns over straying of hatchery fish into wild salmon streams, obvious adverse impacts from hatcheries on production of wild salmon populations in this region are not readily evident.     

Comparative fecundity, clutch size, ovariole number and egg size of Dacus tryoni and D. jarvisi, and their relationship to body size

Dacus tryoni (Frogg.) (Diptera: Tephritidae) is the main tephritid pest of cultivated fruits in Australia. D. jarvisi (Tryon) is also able to infest these fruits. Some factors influencing the rate at which D. tryoni and D. jarvisi exploit patches of host fruits were examined to determine whether one species may have an advantage when they exploit the same fruits in the field. Measurements of the intrinsic rate of increase, ovariole number, clutch size and egg size and the influence of body size on these parameters were made for both species in the laboratory. Up to 10 weeks of age D. tryoni produced twice as many eggs as D. jarvisi, most during a peak 3–5 weeks after adult emergence. The difference in fecundity up to 10 weeks can be explained partly by the higher number of ovarioles in D. tryoni (38/ovary) compared to D. jarvisi (27/ovary). In addition D. tryoni produces smaller eggs than D. jarvisi and distributes them in smaller clutches; 3–4 eggs/clutch vs 10–15. In both species there was a positive correlation between ovariole number and body size (as measured by wing length). By contrast, egg size remained constant over a broad range of body sizes. The influence of these life history differences on the interaction between D. tryoni and D. jarvisi in the field is discussed.

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Résumé D. tryoni Frogg est la principale téphrididae nuisible aux fruits cultivés en Australie. Cependant, plusieurs autres espèces de Dacus, dont D. jarvisi Tryon sont susceptibles de contaminer ces fruits. Quelques facteurs influant sur le taux de contamination de fruits ont été examinés pour déterminer si une espèce peut être avantagée lors de l'exploitation des mêmes fruits dans la nature. L'influence de la taille de l'adulte sur le taux d'accroissement intrinsèque, sur le nombre d'ovarioles, sur l'effectif des pontes et sur la taille des ufs a été examinée au laboratoire sur les 2 espèces. Pendant les 10 premières semaines, D. tryoni produit 2 fois plus d'ufs que D. jarvisi, la plupart étant pondus entre la 3^e et la 5^e semaines après l'émergence. La production de D. tryoni diminue rapidement après ce maximum. D. jarvisi ne présente pas ce maximum précoce, et la production des ufs se fait au même rythme entre les 3^e et 7^e semaines, avant de diminuer graduellement. La différence de fécondité au bout de 10 semaines peut être expliquée partiellement par le plus grand nombre d'ovarioles de D. tryoni (38/ovaire) contre 24/ovaire pour D. jarvisi. De plus, D. tryoni forme des ufs plus petits que D. jarvisi et l'effectif de chacune de ses pontes est plus limité: 3 à 4 ufs contre 10 à 15. Chez les deux espèces, il y a une relation directe nette entre le nombre d'ovarioles et la taille du corps de la femelle (mesurée par la longueur de l'aile). Par contre, la taille des ufs est indépendante d'une grande gamme de tailles du corps des femelles. Les caractéristiques biologiques de D. tryoni le rendent capable de contaminer rapidement les bouquets de fruits qu'il vient de coloniser, ce qui réduit les disponibilités pour les autres espèces susceptibles de contaminer ces fruits. Dans le cas particulier de D. jarvisi, D. tryoni a peu d'impact sur son niveau de population, puisque D. jarvisi peut exploiter aussi son hôte d'origine, Planchonia careya: Il ne tend à entrer en compétition avec D. tryoni que pour une ou deux générations tardives en été, quand l'hôte partage (la goyave) est souvent abondant. Néanmoins, si les fruits sont rares à cette époque ou si les 2 espèces sont obligées de partager leurs hôtes pendant plusieurs générations (hors de l'aire de Planchonia), D. tryoni aura un avantage certain.

     

Evolution of temporal isolation in the wild: genetic divergence in timing of migration and breeding by introduced chinook salmon populations

Abstract. The timing of migration and breeding are key life-history traits; they are not only adaptations of populations to their environments, but can serve to increase reproductive isolation, facilitating further divergence among populations. As part of a study of divergence of chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha , populations, established in New Zealand from a common source in the early 1900s, we tested the hypotheses that the timing of migration and breeding are under genetic control and that the populations genetically differ in these traits despite phenotypic overlap in timing in the wild. Representatives of families from two populations were collected within a day or two of each other, reared in a common environment, and then released to sea from each of two different rivers, while other family representatives were retained in fresh water to maturity. The date of maturation of fish held in fresh water and the dates of return from the ocean and maturation of fish released to sea all showed significant differences between the two populations and among families within populations. The very high heritabilities and genetic correlations estimated for migration and maturation date indicated that these traits would respond rapidly to selection. Combined with the results of related studies on these chinook salmon populations, it appears that spawning time may not only evolve during the initial phases of divergence, but it may play an important role in accelerating divergence in other traits.     

Interaction between hatchery and wild Pacific salmon in the Far East of Russia: A review

We review studies of interactions between hatchery and wild Pacific salmon in the Russian Far East. This includes the role of hatchery practices that result in premature migration to the sea and increased mortality, and data on feeding and territorial competition between juveniles of hatchery and wild origin. In the course of downstream migration many juvenile hatchery salmon are eliminated by wild salmon predation. During the marine period, Japanese hatchery chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) distribution overlaps the distribution of Russian wild salmon. Consequently, replacement of wild populations by hatchery fishes, as a result of abundant juvenile hatchery releases combined with extensive poaching in spawning grounds, is apparent in some Russian rivers. Interactions between the populations occur in all habitats. The importance of conservation of wild salmon populations requires a more detailed study of the consequences of interactions between natural and artificially reared fishes.     

滇池金线鲃亲鱼培育、繁殖力以及卵径大小与胚胎存活率的关系

2007—2010年,对滇池金线鲃(Sinocyclocheilus grahami)进行了亲鱼培育、繁殖力和卵径(egg diameter,ED)大小的研究。滇池金线鲃的催产率、核偏位率和孵化率分别由2007年的25.2%、61.5%和30.4%到2010年的91.3%、85.2%和44.5%。四年间这3项指标均有不同程度提高,其中,催产率提高的幅度最大。提供适合滇池金线鲃营养全面的饵料可以保证亲鱼培育的最佳效果,获得高质量的鱼卵和鱼苗。滇池金线鲃绝对怀卵量与体长的关系是F=0.0004826SL3.166(R2=0.6424,P<0.05)。四年来滇池金线鲃的平均产卵量为(2118.4±899.1)粒,平均绝对怀卵量为(2402.9±881.9)粒,平均相对怀卵量为(70.4±20.8)粒。产卵量、绝对怀卵量和相对怀卵量都有随着体长增加而增加的趋势。卵的大小与胚胎存活相关,在胚胎发育的前两天,不同批次胚胎的死亡呈现一种稳定的或低的死亡率;而后5～7d不同大小的卵呈现不同的死亡率,即小的卵具有更高的死亡率;而卵径>2.0mm的胚胎死亡率趋于稳定;大的卵有更高的生存潜力,能保证仔鱼开口前继续完善身体器官的形成或发生所需要的能量。     

Microsatellite variability and differentiation of hatchery stocks of chum salmon Oncorhynchus keta Walbaum in Sakhalin

Variability at eight microsatellite loci was examined in five populations of chum salmon Oncorhynchus keta Walbaum from Sakhalin hatcheries. The population of Kalinino hatchery had the lowest heterozygosity and the lowest average number of alleles per locus. The populations examined exhibited significant differentiation, θ_ST = 0.026 on average per locus. The maximum genetic differences were found between the populations of the Kalinino and the Ado-Tymovo hatcheries; the latter differs from the remaining populations also by the highest number and high frequencies of specific alleles. The genetic features of the Taranai hatchery population, observed at microsatellite loci, reflect its “mixed” origin.     

Microsatellite variability and differentiation of hatchery stocks of chum salmon Oncorhynchus keta Walbaum in Sakhalin

Variability at eight microsatellite loci was examined in five populations of chum salmon Oncorhynchus keta Walbaum from Sakhalin hatcheries. The population of Kalinino hatchery had the lowest heterozygosity and the lowest average number of alleles per locus. The populations examined exhibited significant differentiation, theta ST = 0.026 on average per locus. The maximum genetic differences were found between the populations of the Kalinino and the Ado-Tymovo hatcheries; the latter differs from the remaining populations also by the highest number and high frequencies of specific alleles. The genetic features of the Taranai hatchery population, observed at microsatellite loci, reflect its "mixed" origin.     

Growth,fecundity, and egg size of least brook lamprey,Lampetra aepyptera

Synopsis Eight geographically-diverse (33°11N to 39°14N) populations of least brook lamprey varied significantly in density of larvae and mean length of metamorphosing and adult lampreys (101–152 mm). Absolute fecundity (503–5900 eggs) did not change significantly with stage of post-larval development, suggesting little post-metamorphic atresia; egg dry weight increased to stage 6, the penultimate stage of metamorphosis. Absolute fecundity increased with the cubic power of total length. Relative fecundity (250–1124 eggs per gram total body weight) decreased significantly with increasing length within two streams. Relative fecundity, adjusted to a common length, increased with mean length of the population. Conversely, mean egg dry weight (0.09–0.24 mg, stages 6–8) increased with maternal length within three streams, and decreased with length among streams. In populations where spawning occurs at a small body size, females produce comparatively fewer but larger eggs. Large eggs may be required to counter the effects of an unproductive environment and the accompanying reduction in relative fecundity is compensatory. No relationship was evident between latitude, annual thermal units, or density and relative fecundity or egg size. Mean length of a population was also unrelated to these environmental factors.     

Diet, fecundity and egg size in some polyphagous predatory carabid beetles

Egg size was measured at different rates of egg laying in three polyphagous carabid species, known to be useful predators of cereal aphids; the small Bembidion lampros Herbst and the medium-sized Pterostichus cupreus L. and P. melanarius Illiger. Variations in fecundity, as well as the ability of the medium-sized species to also build up fat reserves, were obtained when beetles were subjected to different dietary regimes consisting of aphids, or foods with a lower or higher protein content. Egg size was found to be dependent on the rate of egg laying within a species. A diet of cereal aphids appeared to be adequate for egg production in these polyphagous carabids, but female P. cupreus were unable to build up fat reserves when they ingested aphids contaminated with the aphicide pirimicarb. Beetles were able to devote resources to more and larger eggs (B. lampros), or to larger eggs and/or fat reserves (P. melanarius/P. cupreus) when given access to a carbohydrate-rich food with low protein content. The highest rate of egg laying was obtained when female P. cupreus and P. melanarius were given a more varied diet at frequent intervals; including regular shifts between unsprayed aphids, carbohydrate-rich food and protein-rich maggots. Within the varied diet treatment a negative relationship was obtained between egg size and egg number among similar-sized individuals of P. cupreus and P. melanarius; females producing the largest number also laid the smallest eggs. Egg size affected larval survival, since first instars hatching from large eggs were found to survive longer than those hatching from small eggs. The influence of differences in food intake on reproduction, maintenance metabolism, and survival of fieldinhabiting carabids is discussed.     

Egg survival and timing of hatch in two Scottish Atlantic salmon stocks

Atlantic salmon eggs from the Rivers Oykel and Shin were monitored in three rivers and in culture. Significant mortality, attributable to low pH, was found for both stocks in the River Oykel though it was eightfold higher for the non-native Shin eggs. Shin eggs hatched earlier at all three wild sites but hatched later in culture. The observations are consistent with genotype-environment interactions for pH sensitivity and developmental rate.     

Hierarchical analysis of wild Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) fecundity in relation to body size and developmental traits

Using data from wild Atlantic salmon Salmo salar returning to spawn in seven Scottish rivers, we developed a model of fecundity based on individual body size and key developmental traits. We used a novel approach to model selection which maximises predictive accuracy for application to target river stocks to select the best from a suite of Bayesian hierarchical models. This approach aims to ensure the optimal model within the candidate set includes covariates that best predict out-of-sample data to estimate fecundity in areas where no direct observations are available. In addition to body size, the final model included the developmental characteristics of age at smolting and years spent at sea. Using two independent long-term monitoring datasets, the consequences of ignoring these characteristics was revealed by comparing predictions from the best model with models that omitted them.     

Effect of female size on fecundity and egg size in white-spotted charr: comparison between sea-run and resident forms

The relationships between fecundity, egg size and female size of sea-run form were compared with resident form, using white-spotted charr, Salvelinus leucomaenis. Both fecundity and egg size increase with female size. However, the relationship between egg size and female size differed significantly between the resident and sea-run forms. Egg sizes of sea-run and resident were similar even though sea-run fish were much larger. ? 1998 The Fisheries Society of the British Isles     

Mitochondria-responsive signaling between egg and central cell controls their coordinated maturation

Recent studies suggest a complex regulatory network in female gametophyte of angiosperm. The cell-cell communication between female gametes was confirmed during their maturation and functional specialization. The mitochondria-responsive signaling may play a critical role in this process. Here, we briefly summarized the recent discussion on this topic and proposed a two-pathway’s mechanism for regulating coordinated development of the female gamete cells.     

Relationship between abundance, growth, egg size and fecundity in a landlocked population of longfin smelt, Spirinchus thaleichthys

Sixteen year-classes of longfin smelt, Spirinchus thaleichthys , show a consistent pattern of alternating year-class strength between even (strong) and odd (weak) years. A recent (1989) odd year-class grew as well as, if not better than, the late 1960s odd year-classes. However, fish in the even year-classes (1988 and 1990) were significantly smaller in size then the 1966 and 1968 cohorts. Associated with this reduction in growth of the even year-class fish is a decline in fecundity. Fecundity of the odd year-classes of smelt was also smaller than in the early 1960s. Mean egg diameter and gonadosomatic index were not statistically different between 1988 and 1989 year-classes but the relative fecundity was higher for the 1988 year-class than for 1989, suggesting a higher reproductive investment in the even year-class. Reduction in growth and associated reproductive traits is considered to result from a reduction in the abundance of mysids, a preferred prey species.     

Migration of wild and hatchery reared smolts of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., through lakes

In 1982 and 1983 descending wild Atlantic salmon smolts, Salmo salar L., were caught in a fish-trap at the mouth of the River Imsa. Together with hatchery-reared smolts of the River Imsa strain they were tagged and released at three different sites of the Imsa-Lutsi watercourse: in the Imsa River 1 km above the trap, and in two lakes, 3 and 11 km upstream of the trap. The recapture-rate in the fish-trap decreased with increased migration distance. The hatchery-reared smolts migrated downstream faster than wild smolts. Lake-released smolts were considerably delayed in their downstream migration compared to the river released smolts. The results are discussed in relation to environmental and physiological parameters.     

Relationships between metabolic rate, muscle electromyograms and swim performance of adult chinook salmon

Oxygen consumption rates of adult spring chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha increased with swim speed and, depending on temperature and fish mass, ranged from 609 mg O₂ h^?1 at 30 cm s^?1 (c. 0·5 BL s^?1) to 3347 mg O₂ h^?1 at 170 cm s^?1 (c. 2·3 BL s^?1). Corrected for fish mass, these values ranged from 122 to 670 mg O₂ kg^?1 h^?1, and were similar to other Oncorhynchus species. At all temperatures (8, 12·5 and 17° C), maximum oxygen consumption values levelled off and slightly declined with increasing swim speed >170 cm s^?1, and a third‐order polynomial regression model fitted the data best. The upper critical swim speed (U_crit) of fish tested at two laboratories averaged 155 cm s^?1 (2·1 BL s^?1), but U_crit of fish tested at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory were significantly higher (mean 165 cm s^?1) than those from fish tested at the Columbia River Research Laboratory (mean 140 cm s^?1). Swim trials using fish that had electromyogram (EMG) transmitters implanted in them suggested that at a swim speed of c. 135 cm s^?1, red muscle EMG pulse rates slowed and white muscle EMG pulse rates increased. Although there was significant variation between individual fish, this swim speed was c. 80% of the U_crit for the fish used in the EMG trials (mean U_crit 168·2 cm s^?1). Bioenergetic modelling of the upstream migration of adult chinook salmon should consider incorporating an anaerobic fraction of the energy budget when swim speeds are ≥80% of the U_crit.     

Perspectives on wild and hatchery salmon interactions at sea,potential climate effects on Japanese chum salmon,and the need for sustainable salmon fishery management reform in Japan

Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) play an important role as a keystone species and provider of ecosystem services in the North Pacific ecosystem. We review our studies on recent production trends, marine carrying capacity, climate effects and biological interactions between wild and hatchery origin populations of Pacific salmon in the open sea, with a particular focus on Japanese chum salmon (O. keta). Salmon catch data indicates that the abundance of Pacific salmon increased since the 1976/77 ocean regime shift. Chum and pink salmon (O. gorbuscha) maintained high abundances with a sharp increase in hatchery-released populations since the late 1980s. Since the 1990s, the biomass contribution of hatchery returns to the total catch amounts to 50% for chum salmon, more than 10% for pink salmon, and less than 10% for sockeye salmon (O. nerka). We show evidence of density-dependence of growth and survival at sea and how it might vary across spatial scales, and we provide some new information on foraging plasticity that may offer new insight into competitive interactions. The marine carrying capacity of these three species is synchronized with long-term patterns in climate change. At the present time, global warming has positively affected growth and survival of Hokkaido populations of chum salmon. In the future, however, global warming may decrease the marine carrying capacity and the area of suitable habitat for chum salmon in the North Pacific Ocean. We outline future challenges for salmon sustainable conservation management in Japan, and recommend fishery management reform to sustain the hatchery-supported salmon fishery while conserving natural spawning populations.