Predicting the swimming and diving behaviour of penguins from muscle biochemistry

Energy metabolism in the pectoralis and supracoracoideus muscles of seven species of penguins was investigated by determining muscle fibre diameter, myoglobin content, pH buffering capacity and the distribution and properties of lactate dehydrogenase isoenzymes.The penguins can be arranged as follows in order of increasing anaerobic capabilities of the muscles: little < rockhopper and royal < gentoo < Adelie, emperor and king.As a good correlation exists between muscle biochemistry and known diving behaviour of emperor, king, gentoo and little penguins, predictions can be made about the behaviour of species for which only the biochemical data are available.     

Kinematics of swimming garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis)

We investigate the kinematics of swimming garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis) using a novel nonlinear regression-based digitization method to establish quantitative statistical support for non-constant wavelengths in the undulatory pattern exhibited by swimming snakes. We find that in swimming snakes, the growth of the amplitude of the propulsive wave head-to-tail is strongly correlated (p < 0.005) with the head-to-tail growth in the wavelength. We investigate correlations between kinematic parameters and steady swimming speed, and find a very strong positive correlation between swimming speed and undulation frequency. We furthermore find a statistically well-supported positive correlation between swimming speed and both the initial amplitude of the propulsive wave at the head and the degree of amplitude growth from head to tail.     

Kinematics of swimming garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis).

We investigate the kinematics of swimming garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis) using a novel nonlinear regression-based digitization method to establish quantitative statistical support for non-constant wavelengths in the undulatory pattern exhibited by swimming snakes. We find that in swimming snakes, the growth of the amplitude of the propulsive wave head-to-tail is strongly correlated (p < 0.005) with the head-to-tail growth in the wavelength. We investigate correlations between kinematic parameters and steady swimming speed, and find a very strong positive correlation between swimming speed and undulation frequency. We furthermore find a statistically well-supported positive correlation between swimming speed and both the initial amplitude of the propulsive wave at the head and the degree of amplitude growth from head to tail.     

Emperor penguins at the West Ice Shelf

In 1956, an emperor penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri) colony had been reported during an aerial survey north of the north-western protrusion of the West Ice Shelf in East Antarctica. About 15,000 birds were estimated to be present. The region often has very heavy pack ice conditions hindering access by vessels. In the summers of 2009–2011, we surveyed the area from the air and sighted two emperor penguin colonies. One was situated on top of the ice shelf and comprised 342 adults and 1,156 chicks. The second colony was seen near the northern edge of the West Ice Shelf on the sea ice about 60?km farther south than in 1956. There were at least 1,498 adults and 3,436 chicks.     

Big cats at London Zoo

Steve Pollock reviews a new exhibition at London Zoo     

出生在动物园的黑颈鹤

据上世纪80年代统计,全世界仅有800多只黑颈鹤,主要分布在中国。动物园显然不可以再直接从野外捕捉黑颈鹤补充自己的动物资源,可偏偏这宝贝在动物园里就是不肯繁殖。动手解决这个难题,拉开了动物园从利用自然转向保护自然的序幕。[编者按]     

Reproductive parameters of mandrills at the Tulsa Zoo

The genital swelling patterns and birth records of female mandrills housed at the Tulsa Zoo between 1979 and 1992 were examined to determine various reproductive parameters. Mean age at first adolescent genital swelling was 2.7 years (sd = .55), first adult swelling was 3.7 years (sd = .64), and first conception was 5.1 years (sd = 1.30). Genital swelling cycle duration averaged 39.6 days (n = 33 cycles), with the swelling phase averaging 19.5 days (n = 51 cycles). There was no interindividual difference in cycle length (F = 1.26, P = .31) or swelling duration (F = 0.65, P = .58), nor was there a difference in cycle length (F = 0.47, P = .50) or swelling duration (F = 1.27, P = .27) before and after first parturition. Duration of gestation was estimated to be 165.9 days (sd = 3.3; n = 17 pregnancies). Lactational anestrus averaged 10.1 months, whereas mean interbirth interval was 17.9 months (n = 11). There was a significant negative correlation between age of the mother and interbirth interval (r = ?;0.648, P = .03). Data presented in this report provide a comprehensive profile of reproductive parameters for zoo-housed mandrills, which may aid other facilities in the reproductive management of their captive groups. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Animal Activity and Visitor Learning at the Zoo

ABSTRACT

This study investigated the effect animal activity had on information visitors attended to at three bear exhibits. Attention was used as an indirect measure of what information visitors are consciously processing, or learning. It was hypothesized that visitors would be more likely to attend to specific information about animal behavior when bears were active rather than when inactive or out of sight. Visitor conversations were recorded during observations of polar, sloth and spectacled bears. Conversation was coded according to its content (animal-directed, human-focused, behavior, other) and to the corresponding behavior of the bear (active, inactive, pacing, not visible). The energy level of the activity was also considered. The hypothesis was supported for the polar bears, but less so for the other two bears. Behavior conversation was highest and human-directed conversation was lowest in the presence of highly animated polar bears. Behavior content was limited in the presence of the less animated sloth and spectacled bears. However, it was still significantly less frequent, and human content more frequent, when the sloth and spectacled bears were pacing and/or not visible. Therefore, what visitors attended to was influenced by what the bears were doing. The findings suggest that animated activity (rather than the more broadly defined ‘activity’) elicits the most visitor attention to behavior, and this in turn potentially facilitates visitor learning.     

Cryptococcosis in columbiformes at the San Diego Zoo.

Two cases of cryptococcosis in columbiformes exhibited at the San Diego Zoo are described. The organism isolated from the first case had morphological, chemical and temperature growth characteristics of C. neoformans. The culture from case 2 died before it could be examined biochemically or by mouse inoculation.     

Visitor Perceptions of Nature Conservation at Helsinki Zoo

These days zoos often claim that their main objective is the promotion of nature conservation and that they strive to educate their visitors about animals and nature conservation. But how do zoo visitors themselves perceive this emphasis on conservation education? In order to determine how Helsinki Zoo visitors perceive nature conservation during their visit, we undertook a qualitative analysis of 75 structured situational interviews and five autoethnographical visits. Our results show that there was only a limited understanding of nature conservation among the zoo visitors. Their perception follows the typical framing of nature conservation in zoos: conservation projects that embrace captive breeding, in-situ conservation collaboration, and the reintroduction of those species. Moreover, in the Helsinki Zoo case these perceptions may have been influenced by the fact that the zoo did not give concrete advice on how the visitors themselves can contribute to conservation, except in terms of donating money. Framing nature conservation in such ways distances it from visitors’ everyday lives.     

Temporal variation in the diet of gentoo penguins at the Falkland Islands

Knowledge of diet is critical in interpreting the ecological roles of marine top predators and provides information towards their conservation and management. The Falkland Islands hold the largest number of breeding gentoo penguins. Yet knowledge of gentoo penguin diet at the Falklands is limited to either broad taxonomic divisions of prey items or dietary samples collected only on a single day. This study is the first to investigate gentoo penguin diet at Cow Bay, Falklands, to the species level, over repeated sampling intervals during the breeding period. Through stomach content analysis, we determined diet over a large temporal scale (2002/2003/2004–2011/2012/2013) and between the guard and crèche periods of chick rearing. The principle prey item by reconstituted mass was rock cod fish Patagonotothen spp., for all periods (47–78 %) except that of the 2012/2013 crèche period (19 %) when Falkland herring Sprattus fugensis made up the bulk of the diet (52 %). Of the cephalopods recovered, Patagonian squid Doryteuthis gahi was prominent (1–24 %), while crustaceans contributed negligibly to gentoo penguin diet. Our findings revealed that gentoo penguins breeding at the Falkland Islands were primarily demersal foragers with an ability for pelagic feeding. Diet choice appears to reflect prey availability.     

Interaction sequences between chimpanzees and human visitors at the Zoo

Data were collected on the behavior and physical characteristics of 259 human visitors and 24 chimpanzees at Chester Zoo. The successive responses of humans and chimpanzees to each other's behavior were recorded, the resulting long sequence being referred to as an interaction sequence. There was no particular set of characteristics that distinguished interactors from noninteractors in either humans or chimpanzees, although there was some evidence that chimpanzees were particularly likely to respond to men carrying objects. Chimpanzee responses were random with respect to the previous human behavior, but human responses were significantly associated with the preceding chimpanzee behavior. In particular, chimpanzee sounds were likely to be followed by human sounds, and begging was likely to be followed by the offer of food. Interaction sequences varied in length, but 9% of chimpanzee-initiated sequences went as far as a ninth interaction. Sequences resulted in the chimpanzees being given food in 25% of human-initiated, but only 8% of chimpanzee-initiated sequences. The results are consistent with the interpretation that humans and chimpanzees are motivated to interact with one another and that the chimpanzees do this primarily to obtain food. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Studies on Asian elephant reproduction at the Washington Park Zoo

Studies of Asian elephant reproduction at the Washington Park Zoo in the areas of the estrous cycle, semen collection, bull elephant management and health care, pregnancy, and pheromones have yielded sufficient information to attempt repeated artificial insemination (AI) at the time of ovulation. While no pregnancy has been achieved to date, with the information now at hand AI can be expected to become a practical technique for breeding elephants in captivity.     

Naturally Acquired Picornavirus Infections in Primates at the Dhaka Zoo

The conditions in densely populated Bangladesh favor picornavirus transmission, resulting in a high rate of infection in the human population. Data suggest that nonhuman primates (NHP) may play a role in the maintenance and transmission of diverse picornaviruses in Bangladesh. At the Dhaka Zoo, multiple NHP species are caged in close proximity. Their proximity to other species and to humans, both zoo workers and visitors, provides the potential for cross-species transmission. To investigate possible interspecies and intraspecies transmission of picornaviruses among NHP, we collected fecal specimens from nine NHP taxa at the Dhaka Zoo at three time points, August 2007, January 2008, and June 2008. Specimens were screened using real-time PCR for the genera Enterovirus, Parechovirus, and Sapelovirus, and positive samples were typed by VP1 sequencing. Fifty-two picornaviruses comprising 10 distinct serotypes were detected in 83 fecal samples. Four of these serotypes, simian virus 19 (SV19), baboon enterovirus (BaEV), enterovirus 112 (EV112), and EV115, have been solely associated with infection in NHP. EV112, EV115, and SV19 accounted for 88% of all picornaviruses detected. Over 80% of samples from cages housing rhesus macaques, olive baboons, or hamadryas baboons were positive for a picornavirus, while no picornaviruses were detected in samples from capped langurs or vervet monkeys. In contrast to our findings among synanthropic NHP in Bangladesh where 100% of the picornaviruses detected were of human serotypes, in the zoo population, only 15% of picornaviruses detected in NHP were of human origin. Specific serotypes tended to persist over time, suggesting either persistent infection of individuals or cycles of reinfection.     

Freeze-mark techniques applied to mammals at the Santa Barbara Zoo

Dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl₂F₂) was evaluated as a means of freeze-marketing ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta), brown lemurs (L. fulvus), and Parma wallabys (Wallabia parma). Application times of 3–6 sec on unshaven lemurs resulted in successful markings, but the wallabys failed to respond with growth of white hair to application times of 3–10 sec. The freeze-marking process caused little physical discomfort when applied to fleshy regions, and the marks appear to be permanent.     

Foraging parameters of gentoo penguins Pygoscelis papua at Marion Island

Summary We measured the foraging parameters of breeding gentoo penguins Pygoscelis papua at sub-Antarctic Marion Island. Mean swimming speed was 7.9 km h^-1. Penguins spent on average 8.1 h away from the colony if they returned on the same day they left and 23.7 h away if they remained at sea overnight. Sixteen percent of the total time away at sea was spent swimming. Time spent swimming, and consequently distance travelled, during a foraging trip were highly variable and showed significant intercolony differences. However, 80% of all foraging trips totalled less than 40 km. Meal sizes were small and there was no correlation between meal size and distance travelled, suggesting a low availability of food. Prey items in the diet consisted mainly of the benthic shrimp Nauticaris marionis and the demersal fish Notothenia squamifrons. On evidence from stomach contents and the distances the penguins travelled, we suggest that Nauticaris marionis has a more restricted distribution around Marion Island than does Notothenia squamifrons. The concentration of gentoo penguin breeding colonies along the east coast of Marion Island and the south-east coast of Prince Edward Island may be attributable to favourable feeding conditions between the two islands.     

Behavioral management at the Phoenix Zoo: new strategies and perspectives

It all started with a seemingly simple decision to re-evaluate and document the Phoenix Zoo's behavioral management protocol. The purpose of this project was to present proactive standards for the care and psychological well-being of our living collection, while meeting or exceeding the guidelines of the Animal Welfare Act (U. S. Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health and Inspection Service, Animal Care, 1999). Preparing the protocol was a catalyst to re-evaluate the zoo's philosophy and application of behavioral management. It suggested a restructuring of collection management and the rethinking of future goals and practices. Gradually, the process became more focused and organized. Behavioral enrichment, training, animal behavior issues, and exhibit architecture were embraced as essential components for providing quality of life. Staff from all levels worked side-by-side on assignments. Our way of thinking and working was changing.     

Breeding fireflies at Tama Zoo: An ecological approach

Techniques to breed the Genji firefly, Luciola cruciata, a lampyrid (firefly) native to Japan, we developed at Tama Zoo, Tokyo. In order to determine captive husbandry procedures, the staff made close observations on the life cycle of this species in nature. It took more than a decade to establish the breathing program in an outdoor water channel at the Tama Zoo. Patterned after a freshwater ecosystem, the channel system enables the insect to undergo the simulated “food-chains” cycle for completing the metamorphic process. Captive-reared larvae, also known as “glowworms”, and knowledge on husbandry have been utilized to reintroduce the species in its former natural ranges.     

Patterns of reproduction in Malayan silvered leaf monkeys at the Bronx Zoo

Within phylogenetic limits reproductive characteristics of a given species may vary between populations in response to ecological and social factors. For instance, in environments where high quality nutrition is readily available, the onset and speed of reproduction are often accelerated. Other influencing factors might be maternal experience or the sex of the infant. Here we present data on reproductive characteristics for the silvered leaf monkey (Trachypithecus cristatus), a medium‐sized Asian colobine housed at the Wildlife Conservation Society's Bronx Zoo as a one‐male group. To place the species into an appropriate phylogenetic context, we limited our comparison to other colobine species. Demographic data span 21.4 years (October 1985 to March 2007) and derive from 30 adult females (128.0 female years). Detailed behavioral data stem from a 2.2 years study (November 2002 to January 2005; 734 days, 4,225 hr). As in other Asian colobines, receptive periods were short (mean=4.3 days, n=68). This is expected for one‐male groups where receptivity likely indicates, rather than conceals, ovulation. Gestation length was estimated based on a change in the pattern of sexual behavior (mean=194.6 days, n=7). It fell within the range reported for the taxon. Births occurred year round, at an early age (mean=2.9 years, n=8), at short intervals (mean=14.9 months, n=59) in combination with a short lactation (mean 12.1 months, n=9) likely due to the nearly unlimited availability of nutrition in this zoo setting. Primiparous females tended to have a longer first interbirth interval but infant survival rates were similar to multipara possibly due to the absence of predators. Maternal investment was independent of the infant's sex and birth sex ratio was even. Our results emphasize that when interpreted with caution, zoo populations yield realistic reproductive characteristics that can help fill the gap in our knowledge about colobine life history. Am. J. Primatol. 71:852–859, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Estimating the relative abundance of emperor penguins at inaccessible colonies using satellite imagery

Emperor penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri) populations are useful environmental indicators due to the bird’s extreme reliance on sea ice. We used remote sensing technology to estimate relative adult bird abundance at two inaccessible emperor penguin colonies in the Ross Sea, Antarctica. We performed supervised classification of 12 panchromatic satellite images of the seven known Ross Sea colonies. We used regression to predict adult bird counts at the inaccessible colonies by relating the number of pixels classified as “penguin” in the satellite images of the accessible colonies to corresponding known adult bird counts from aerial photographs or ground counts. While our analysis was hampered by excessive guano and shadows, we used satellite imagery to differentiate between relatively small (<3,000 adult birds) and larger colonies (>5,000 adult birds). Remote sensing technology is logistically less intense and less costly than aerial or ground censuses when the objective is to document penguin presence and/or large emperor penguin population changes (e.g., catastrophic changes). Improvements expected soon in the resolution of the satellite images should allow for more accurate abundance estimates.