Locomotory,ventilatory and metabolic responses of the subterranean Stenasellus virei (Crustacea,Isopoda) to severe hypoxia and subsequent recovery

The locomotory and ventilatory activities and the intermediary and energy metabolism modifications of the hypogean aquatic isopod crustacean Stenasellus virei were investigated in severe hypoxia (Po₂ < 0.03 kPa) and subsequent recovery. The aims of this study were i) to determine why the subterranean species displayed a greater tolerance of hypoxia than numerous other epigean crustaceans, ii) to confirm previous results obtained with four hypogean and epigean crustaceans, iii) to compare the responses to severe hypoxia in hypogean amphipods and isopods, and iv) to better understand the ecological problems of the hypogean organisms survival in subterranean habitats. S. virei responded to experimental long-term, severe hypoxia with classical anaerobic metabolism mainly characterized by a decrease in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and phosphagen, utilization of glycogen and glutamate, and accumulation of lactate and alanine. Lactate was also largely excreted by this organism, which is unusual for crustaceans in general. Compared to most other epigean crustaceans, the isopod S. virei showed high amounts of stored glycogen and arginine phosphate. These differences in glycogen and phosphagen stores, and the ability to reduce energetic expenditures linked to locomotion and ventilation, extended the survival of S. virei under experimental anaerobiosis. During recovery, the isopod S. virei showed a higher capacity for glyconeogenesis from lactate and a faster and total replenishment of ATP and arginine phosphate levels than epigean crustaceans. Data concerning responses to hypoxia and subsequent recovery in S. virei are similar to those previously obtained with two other hypogean amphipods, except that this isopod did not synthesize succinate in anaerobiosis.     

Phylogeography of a subterranean amphipod reveals cryptic diversity and dynamic evolution in extreme environments

Extreme conditions in subsurface are suspected to be responsible for morphological convergences, and so to bias biodiversity assessment. Subterranean organisms are also considered as having poor dispersal abilities that in turn generate a large number of endemic species when habitat is fragmented. Here we test these general hypotheses using the subterranean amphipod Niphargus virei. All our phylogenetic analyses (Bayesian, maximum likelihood and distance), based on two independent genes (28S and COI), revealed the same tripartite structure. N. virei populations from Benelux, Jura region and the rest of France appeared as independent evolutionary units. Molecular rates estimated via global or Bayesian relaxed clock suggest that this split is at least 13 million years old and accredit the cryptic diversity hypothesis. Moreover, the geographical distribution of these lineages showed some evidence of recent dispersal through apparent vicariant barrier. In consequence, we argue that future analyses of evolution and biogeography in subsurface, or more generally in extreme environments, should consider dispersal ability as an evolving trait and morphology as a potentially biased marker.     

Comparative responses to severe hypoxia and subsequent recovery in closely related amphipod populations (Gammarus minus) from cave and surface habitats

The locomotory and ventilatory activities, oxygen consumption, and the intermediary and energy metabolism modifications of a spring and a cave population of the aquatic amphipod crustacean Gammarus minus were investigated in normoxia, severe hypoxia ( < 0.03 kPa) and subsequent recovery. The aims of this study were to compare (1) the reactions of both populations to these experimental conditions, (2) these results with those obtained on the hypogean amphipod Niphargus, and (3) the degree of adaptation to hypoxia showed by both populations of G. minus. Despite their different origins, both populations of G. minus presented identical responses in all experimental conditions. The lethal time for 50% of the population was about 6 h, and the oxygen consumption about 44 μmol O₂/g dw per h in normoxic conditions. The metabolic effects of severe hypoxia and subsequent recovery were significant compared to normoxic conditions, but also similar between both populations for alanine, arginine phosphate, ATP, glycogen and lactate levels. This study (i) underlines the statement that a high resistance to lack of oxygen is not universally found in subterranean organisms, but is more related to oxygen availability and/or to the energetic state of each subterranean ecosystem, and (ii) highlight the diversity of adaptive responses to an environmental constraint expressed by hypogean crustaceans. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Comparative study of electron transport system activity and oxygen consumption of amphipods from caves and surface habitats

1. Respiratory electron transport system (ETS) activity and oxygen consumption were measured at 10 °C for the hypogean amphipods Niphargus stygius (from two epikarst locations) and N. krameri (from a sinking river in a cave) and the epigean amphipod Gammarus fossarum (inhabiting a spring and a river). 2. ETS activity and oxygen consumption were compared between caves and the two surface locations, and between hypogean and epigean amphipods. ETS activities were found not to differ between animals from different locations, or between epigean and hypogean amphipods. As expected, the oxygen consumption of N. krameri and N. stygius was lower than that of G. fossarum. 3. The high ratio between ETS activity and oxygen consumption (ETS/R ratio) showed that N. krameri and N. stygius possess high metabolic potential that can be exploited for energy recovery and rapid restoration of body reserves immediately following the appearance of favourable conditions (food and/or oxygen). In contrast, G. fossarum exhibited a low ETS/R ratio, indicating exploitation of a great proportion of the metabolic potential for standard metabolism. 4. Feeding in N. stygius increased oxygen consumption but not ETS activity, and thus fed N. stygius had a much lower ETS/R ratio than starved ones. 5. A relatively high metabolic potential (i.e. high ETS/R ratio) may be an adaptation to hypogean life in amphipods, in that it improves survival under poor food and/or oxygen conditions.     

Effect of fasting on hypogean (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Niphargus stygius</Emphasis>) and epigean (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Gammarus fossarum</Emphasis>) amphipods: a laboratory study

Two amphipods, the hypogean Niphargus stygius and epigean Gammarus fossarum, were analyzed for fatty acid (FA) composition, electron transport system (ETS) activity and respiration (R) during a laboratory fasting experiment. In agreement with ETS and R measurements (and the ETS/R ratio), the hypogean N. stygius utilized FA more slowly than the epigean G. fossarum. Inter-specific differences in the utilization of certain FA during fasting were also revealed. While N. stygius tended to preserve all of its FA during the experimental fasting period, G. fossarum showed a tendency to utilize MUFA (monounsaturated FA) and SAFA (saturated FA) and preferentially retain PUFA (polyunsaturated FA). The significant correlations between ETS activity and composition of specific FA during fasting can be linked to R. During the fasting, both ETS activity and respiration rate of G. fossarum decreased, however, ETS/R ratio increased. In contrast, N. stygius did not show significant changes in these parameters. This is the first report, which connects ETS activity with changes in concentrations of specific FA during fasting. Such evolutionary adaptations of hypogean species enables them to better survive chronically low and/or discontinuous food supplies compared to epigean species, which live in environments where food shortages are much less frequent.     

Phylogeography and molecular rates of subterranean aquatic Stenasellid Isopods with a peri-Tyrrhenian distribution

The subterranean Isopods belonging to the genus Stenasellus have an interesting disjunct distribution in the peri-Tyrrhenian area with morphologically closely related taxa occurring in Sardinia, Corsica, Tuscany and in the Pyrenees phreatic and interstitial waters. Because the dispersal capacities of these organisms are limited, their distribution has been associated traditionally with the tectonic events leading to the separation of the Sardinia-Corsica microplate from the Pyrenees and its subsequent movement towards the Italian peninsula. We sequenced a fragment of the mtDNA cytochrome oxidase I gene (COI) for multiple populations of the S. racovitzai species-group (Corsica, Sardinia, Tuscany) and S. virei (Pyrenees). We found that multiple phylogenetic analyses always gave the same topology, which is consistent with the genetic relations found using allozyme data, and with the palaeogeography of the area. The molecular data suggest that a combination of vicariance and dispersal events explain most effectively the present distribution pattern of these organisms. We also calculated COI rates and calibrated them against absolute time, taking advantage of the availability of two geologically based time estimates. Rates on all substitutions are similar to those published for other crustaceans for the same COI fragment, including taxonomically and ecologically distant groups. Rates on third codon positions or on transversions are generally lower than those found in other crustaceans.     

Unusual basement layer in the midgut of gammaridean Niphargus virei Chevreux (Crustacea, Amphipoda)

The basement membrane of the midgut and posterior caeca epithelium in the gammaridean amphipod Niphargus virei Chevreux, 1896 is made of an unusual structure. This basal lamina, properly called "basal layer", shows a dense sheet formed by a system of dense hexagonal plates connected by thin filaments. Histochemical studies and enzymatic reactions lead to the conclusion that these structures are proteinaceous, without collagenous protein, and embedded in a neutral polysaccharide matrix. The possible mechanical significance of these mesenteric structures is discussed.     

The effect of light on oxygen consumption in two amphipod crustaceans–the hypogean Niphargus stygius and the epigean Gammarus fossarum

The effects of light on the metabolic rates of the hypogean amphipod Niphargus stygius and the epigean amphipod Gammarus fossarum were compared by measuring oxygen consumption and respiratory electron transport system (ETS) activity. They were exposed to light intensities of 720 and 4700?lx at 10°C. Oxygen consumption increased significantly in N. stygius exposed to both low and high intensities of light, but no significant increase was observed in G. fossarum at either intensity. The increase of oxygen consumption in N. stygius was significantly greater at the higher light intensity. This indicates a stress response in which exploitation of half the metabolic potential for energy production in N. stygius during exposure to high light intensity constitutes an adverse effect on its metabolism, since this species usually uses less than 25% of its total metabolic potential for standard metabolic demands.     

Dynamics of surface water/groundwater ecotones in a karstic aquifer

SUMMARY.

• 1 Interactions between surface waters and groundwaters were analysed by studying degrees of similarity between a surface stream and groundwater in a karstic system.
• 2 Exchange of water and solutes (‘abiotic interactions’) and living organisms (‘biotic interactions’) were quantified by characteristic parameters measured at the outlet of the karstic system during hydrological changes across the year as well as during a flood.
• 3 The ratio of bicarbonate to calcium described abiotic interactions. In the seasonal study, biotic interactions were estimated from the proportion of epigean organisms in the communities sampled at the outlet. These interactions during the flood were estimated by comparing numbers of Cladocera, epigean organisms, with numbers of Niphargus virei, hypogean organisms.
• 4 The location of the ecotone created by interactions between the surface stream and the karstic system showed marked spatial fluctuations according to the prevailing hydrology. Interactions were strong during high-water periods whereas they were negligible during low-water. Similar fluctuations occurred within a few hours during the flood.
• 5 Results are compared with those from fluvial systems to discuss the importance of the dynamics of these surface/underground ecotones in the functioning of lotie ecosystems.

     

The nature of biodiversity in hypogean waters and how it is endangered

The specialised aquatic hypogean, i.e. stygobiotic, fauna has been recognised in some regions moderately rich. Slovenia, the broader Dinaric region, and Europe are particularly rich with about 7–8% of all Metazoa and about 40% of Crustacea species being stygobionts. The hypogean biotic diversity is in general predominantly a crustacean diversity. The high number of stygobiont Crustacea–Malacostraca species can be explained by the near absence of Insecta as well as by their high endemicity and sometimes additional specialisation, i.e. the spatial and ecological partition of the environment by the species. Although one cave system may exceptionally shelter up to 40 stygobiont species, they are distributed there into separate associations. Among more than 2000 described stygobiontic Malacostraca species, which include close to 950 Amphipoda, the species numbers within some genera are very high (e.g. Niphargus with 275 spp.). With 10 orders represented the higher taxonomic diversity of stygobiont Malacostraca matches that of fresh waters or the sea. Comparison of some faunas shows that the limiting factors for biodiversity might be the lower ecological diversity of habitats and restricted food resources underground, both brought about to a high degree by the darkness and absence of plants. Being K-strategists, stygobionts are endangered by any sudden changes in their environment. In the case of an increased food input by modest organic pollution, they can be outcompeted by energetically demanding but competitively stronger recent immigrants from surface.     

Freshwater amphipods as biomonitors of metal pollution in surface and interstitial aquatic systems

1. The relationships between levels of metals (Zn, Cu) in the environment (water, sediment) and in the tissues of three species of amphipod crustaceans were investigated in superficial and interstitial ecosystems of the Rivers Rhone and Ain, France. 2. Epigean and hypogean amphipods differed in their ability to accumulate Zn and Cu. At all sites, Gammarus fossarum (epigean) showed lower Zn or Cu body concentrations than Niphargus of, rhenorhodanensis or Niphargopsis casparyi (hypogean). Differences were also observed between the two interstitial taxa. 3. A significant difference among sites was observed for metal concentrations in sediment. In contrast, no significant inter-site differences were found for metal concentrations in organisms. 4. No significant correlation was found between metal concentrations in the three taxa and quantities of metals in the water. A positive correlation was observed between Zn and Cu body content in Gammarus fossarum and metal level in the sediment. No relationships were found between interstitial amphipods and metal concentrations in the sediment. 5. Differences in accumulation rates among the three amphipod species suggest their potential use as biological indicators for monitoring metal pollution.     

Oxygen supply and the adaptations of animals in groundwater

1. The first part of this review focuses on the oxygen status of natural groundwater systems (mainly porous aquifers) and hyporheic zones of streams. The second part examines the sensitivity of groundwater organisms, especially crustaceans, to low oxygen concentrations (< 3.0 mg L^?1 O₂). 2. Dissolved oxygen (DO) in groundwater is spatially heterogeneous at macro- (km), meso- (m) and micro- (cm) scales. This heterogeneity, an essential feature of the groundwater environment, reflects changes in sediment composition and structure, groundwater flow velocity, organic matter content, and the abundance and activity of micro-organisms. Dissolved oxygen also exhibits strong temporal changes in the hyporheic zone of streams as well as in the recharge area of aquifers, but these fluctuations should be strongly attenuated with increasing distance from the stream and the recharge zone. 3. Dissolved oxygen gradients along flow paths in groundwater systems and hyporheic zones vary over several orders of magnitude (e.g. declines of 9 × 10^?5 to 1.5 ×10^?2 mg L^?1 O₂ m^?1 in confined aquifers and 2 × 10^?2 to 1 mg L^?1 O₂ m^?1 in parafluvial water). Several factors explain this strong variation. Where the water table is close to the surface, oxygen is likely to be consumed rapidly in the first few metres below the water table because of incomplete degradation of soil-generated labile dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in the vadose zone. Where the water table is far from the surface, strong oxygen depletion in the vicinity of the water table does not occur, DO being then gradually consumed as groundwater flows down the hydraulic gradient. In unconfined groundwater systems, oxygen consumption along flow paths may be compensated by down-gradient replenishment of DO, resulting either from the ingress of atmospheric oxygen or water recharge through the vadose zone. In confined groundwater systems, where replenishment of oxygen is impossible, the removal time of DO varies from a few years to more than 10 000 years, depending mainly on the organic carbon content of the sediment. Comparison of the hyporheic zones between systems also revealed strong differences in the removal time and length of underground pathways for DO. This strong variability among systems seems related to differences in contact time of water with sediment. 4. Although groundwater macro-crustaceans are much more resistant to hypoxia than epigean species, they cannot survive severe hypoxia (DO < 0.01 mg L^?1 O₂) for very long (lethal time for 50% of the population ranged from 46.7 to 61.7 h). In severe hypoxia, none of the hypogean crustaceans examined utilized a high-ATP yielding metabolic pathway. High survival times are mainly a result of the combination of three mechanisms: a high storage of fermentable fuels (glycogen and phosphagen), a low metabolic rate in normoxia, and a further reduction in metabolic rate by reducing locomotion and ventilation. It is suggested here that the low metabolic rate of many hypogean species may be an adaptation to low oxygen and not necessarily result from an impoverished food supply. 5. An interesting physiological feature of hypogean crustaceans is their ability to recover from anaerobic stress and, more specifically, rapidly to resynthesize glycogen stores during post-hypoxic recovery. A high storage and rapid restoration of fermentable fuels (without feeding) allows groundwater crustaceans to exploit a moving mosaic of suboxic (< 0.3 mg L?1 O₂), dysoxic (0.3–3.0 mg L^?1 O₂) and oxic (> 3 mg L^?1 O₂) patches. 6. It is concluded that although hypogean animals are probably unsuited for life in extensively or permanently suboxic groundwater, they can be found in small or temporarily suboxic patches. Indeed, their adaptations to hypoxia are clearly suited for life in groundwater characterized by spatially heterogeneous or highly dynamic DO concentrations. Their capacity to survive severe hypoxia for a few days and to recover rapidly would explain partly why ecological field studies often reveal the occurrence of interstitial taxa in groundwater with a wide range of DO.     

Body size regulation in copepod crustaceans

Body size affects survival probabilities, reproductive output and individual fitness in many organisms. In freshwater zooplankton, traits ranging from demographic rates to community composition depend on body size, and predation is most often identified as the selection pressure determining body size. We examined the extent to which stage-specific growth trajectories and body sizes of copepod crustaceans are constrained, independent of selection. We used exuviae shed at each molt to quantify the relationship between size at molting and growth during the subsequent instar for two common, herbivorous calanoid copepods, Boeckella triarticulata and Diaptomus leptopus. Individuals of both species were raised under diets of different food quality or quantity, and at different temperatures. Size at molting varied little among individuals of both species, as a consequence of a persistent negative relationship between size at molting and subsequent (absolute) growth increment. Individuals that were small when they molted grew more during the subsequent instar than individuals that were large. This relationship was statistically significant for nearly all instars of both species raised in different food or temperature conditions, and not affected by food quality, food quantity or temperature. Our results indicate that body size is constrained or regulated over much of the copepod life cycle, independent of the effects of environmental conditions (food, temperature, predation). Received: 26 December 1998 / Accepted: 13 September 1999     

No sight,no smell? – Brain anatomy of two amphipod crustaceans with different lifestyles

The brain anatomy of Niphargus puteanus and Orchestia cavimana, two amphipod species with different lifestyles, has been studied using a variety of recent techniques. The general aspects of the brain anatomy of both species correspond to those of other malacostracans. However, both species lack hemiellipsoid bodies. Furthermore, related to their lifestyle certain differences have been observed. The aquatic subterranean species N. puteanus lacks eye structures, the optic nerve, and the two outer optic neuropils lamina and medulla. Only partial remains of the lobula have been detected. In contrast to this, the central complex in the protocerebrum and the olfactory glomeruli in the deutocerebrum are well differentiated. The terrestrial species Orchestia cavimana shows a reduced first antenna, the absence of olfactory neuropils in the deutocerebrum, and a reduction of the olfactory globular tract. The characteristics in defining the hemiellipsoid bodies are critically discussed. Contradictions about presence or absence of this neuropil are due to different conceptualizations. A comparison with other crustaceans that live in dark environments reveal similar patterns of optic system reduction, but to different degrees following a centripetal pattern. Retaining the olfactory system seems a general problem of terrestrialization in crustaceans with the notable exception of terrestrial hermit crabs.     

Effects of spates on the vertical distribution of the interstitial community

The effect of hydrological variations on the vertical distribution of interstitial organisms was studied in a by-passed channel of the Rhône River(France) in terms of the distortion and recovery of community structure over a 480-day period that included 9 spates. The hypogean and epigean components of the interstitial assemblages were studied, the latter at four depths (50, 100, 150 and 200 cm) within the substratum, during a succession of artificially regulated spates and periods of low flow. Interstitial fauna were obtained with a Bou-Rouch sampler through permanent standpipes at intervals of one, seven and seventeen days after each spate. A strong relationship was demonstrated between disturbance intensity (amplitude and duration of spates) and the magnitude of changes in the vertical distribution of the fauna. Both hypogean and epigean organisms were displaced vertically after each spate, resulting in an increase in the numbers of epigean organisms in interstitial layers. Recovery of vertical distribution of the interstitial fauna to pre-spate conditions, consisted of a decrease of epigean and an increase of hypogean fauna with the substratum, mainly at intermediate sampling depths (100, 150 cm). The effect of spates on community structure and rate of recovery varied in relation to 1) the combination of spate amplitude and duration (i.e. the shape of the discharge pattern), 2) the disturbance regime (i.e. the recent hydrological past) and 3) season (temperature and biological cycle).     

Chitobiase of planktonic crustaceans from South Atlantic coast (Southern Brazil): Characterization and influence of abiotic parameters on enzyme activity

Chitobiase is one of the enzymes involved in chitin degradation in nature. It is produced and released by a variety of organisms from bacteria to fish. In crustaceans, it is associated with digestive function and acts on the epidermis during the molting process. In the present study, the influence of water pH, temperature and salinity on maximum chitobiase activity (MCA), as well as the enzyme affinity (Km) for a substrate, the methylumbelliferyl N-acetyl-ß-d-glucosaminide (MUFNAG) was evaluated in the copepod Acartia tonsa. Km values for chitobiases of other crustaceans from the Patos Lagoon estuary and Cassino Beach (Southern Brazil) were also determined. For A. tonsa, MCA was observed at pH 5-6 and 30-35 °C. The range of pH was quite similar to that reported for other aquatic organisms. However, the range of temperature was lower than that previously reported. For salinity, no previous studies have considered the influence of this parameter on MCA. For A. tonsa, MCA was observed in freshwater, showing a significant linear decrease with increasing salinity. Considering that maximum copepod survival and growth rates are observed between 15 and 25 ppt, these findings suggest that the observed enzyme activity in this range of salinity (68 to 47% of that measured in freshwater) is not a limiting factor for A. tonsa growth. However, the extremely decreased enzyme activity observed in salinity 30 ppt (33% of that measured in freshwater) suggests that chitobiase activity might be one of the limiting factor for copepod growth at 30 ppt salinity or higher. Km values (μM) determined for organisms evaluated in the present study (copepod A. tonsa = 20.77; mysid Metamysidopsis elongata atlantica = 14.67; nauplii barnacle Balanus improvisus = 18.19; decapod zoea = 14.30; decapod megalopa = 24.77) were lower than those reported for other crustaceans from Northern Hemisphere. Also, they were much lower than those of organisms from different taxonomic groups like bacteria and fungi, but much higher than in protozoans and dinoflagelates. These findings suggest that chitobiase might be differentially evolved in each specific group of organism, and even within different ontogenetic stages of the same species, for a better adaptation to cope with its respective environmental needs.     

Environmental constraints upon locomotion and predator-prey interactions in aquatic organisms: an introduction

Environmental constraints in aquatic habitats have become topics of concern to both the scientific community and the public at large. In particular, coastal and freshwater habitats are subject to dramatic variability in various environmental factors, as a result of both natural and anthropogenic processes. The protection and sustainable management of all aquatic habitats requires greater understanding of how environmental constraints influence aquatic organisms. Locomotion and predator-prey interactions are intimately linked and fundamental to the survival of mobile aquatic organisms. This paper summarizes the main points from the review and research articles which comprise the theme issue 'Environmental constraints upon locomotion and predator-prey interactions in aquatic organisms'. The articles explore how natural and anthropogenic factors can constrain these two fundamental activities in a diverse range of organisms from phytoplankton to marine mammals. Some major environmental constraints derive from the intrinsic properties of the fluid and are mechanical in nature, such as viscosity and flow regime. Other constraints derive from direct effects of factors, such as temperature, oxygen content of the water or turbidity, upon the mechanisms underlying the performance of locomotion and predator-prey interactions. The effect of these factors on performance at the tissue and organ level is reflected in constraints upon performance of the whole organism. All these constraints can influence behaviour. Ultimately, they can have an impact on ecological performance. One issue that requires particular attention is how factors such as temperature and oxygen can exert different constraints on the physiology and behaviour of different taxa and the ecological implications of this. Given the multiplicity of constraints, the complexity of their interactions, and the variety of biological levels at which they can act, there is a clear need for integration between the fields of physiology, biomechanics, behaviour, ecology, biological modelling and evolution in both laboratory and field studies. For studies on animals in their natural environment, further technological advances are required to allow investigation of how the prevailing physico-chemical conditions influence basic physiological processes and behaviour.     

Combining dissimilar senses: central processing of hydrodynamic and chemosensory inputs in aquatic crustaceans

Aquatic environments are by their nature dynamic and dominated by fluid movements driven by lunar tides, temperature and salinity density gradients, wind-driven currents, and currents generated by the earth's rotation. Accordingly, animals within the aquatic realm must be able to sense and respond to both large-scale (advection) and small-scale (eddy turbulence) fluid dynamics, for chemical signals critically important for their survival are embedded within such movements. Aquatic crustaceans possess many types of near-field fluid-flow detectors and two general classes of chemoreceptors on their body appendages: high-threshold, near-field receptors that may be somewhat equated with the sense of taste, and low-threshold far-field receptors that can be considered as olfactory. This review briefly summarizes the distribution of hydrodynamic and high-threshold chemoreceptors in aquatic crustaceans and the physiological characteristics of olfactory receptors in lobsters; it also examines recent physiological evidence for the central nervous integration of inputs from olfactory receptors and hydrodynamic detectors, two dissimilar senses that must be combined within the brain for survival. Marine crustaceans have provided valuable insights about mechanisms of primary olfactory sensory physiology; their additional sensitivity to hydrodynamic stimulation makes them a potentially useful model for examining how these two critical sensory inputs are combined within the brain to enhance foraging behavior. Multimodal sensory processing is critically important to all animals, and the principles and concepts derived from these crustacean studies may provide generalities about neuronal processing across taxa.     

The imprint of Quaternary glaciers on the present-day distribution of the obligate groundwater amphipod Niphargus virei (Niphargidae)

Aim A plausible yet untested biogeographical scenario suggests that Quaternary glaciers shaped the present‐day distribution of the groundwater amphipod Niphargus virei. This study was designed to test two hypotheses pertaining to this scenario: (1) the probability of occurrence of N. virei in ice‐free areas decreases in the vicinity of the Würm glacier; and (2) dispersal is sufficiently low for the historical record of glacial effects to persist over time. Location The study area was located in the southern Jura Mountains, France. Methods A total of 497 sites were sampled to ascertain the distribution of N. virei in the southern Jura. Amplified fragment length polymorphism was analysed from a subset of 24 sites. The relationships between the probability of occurrence of N. virei and distance to the Würm glacier or elevation were investigated using a logistic regression. Spatial autocorrelation analyses were performed on both the residuals of the logistic regression and genetic distance to test the significance of dispersal and barriers to post‐glacial recolonization. The influence of catchment boundaries as barriers to dispersal was examined using different neighbouring relationships between sites. We tested the statistical significance of the reduction in deviance and gain in precision of an autologistic regression that took into consideration the influence of dispersal constraints on the distribution of N. virei. Results Niphargus virei rarely occurred in formerly glaciated areas, and its probability of occurrence in ice‐free areas decreased in the vicinity of the Würm glacier. Combined autocorrelation analyses of spatial distribution and spatial genetic structure showed that: (1) the distance at which spatial autocorrelation was no longer significantly positive did not exceed 16 km; (2) genetic differentiation fitted a model of isolation by distance; and (3) catchment boundaries acted as barriers to dispersal. The autologistic regression with dispersal constraints significantly increased our capacity to predict the distribution of N. virei. Maps of probabilities of occurrence suggested that post‐glacial recolonization was impeded by the extension of glacial outwash. Main conclusions The present distribution of N. virei in southern Jura is probably the result of a historical range reduction driven by glaciation coupled with restricted dispersal and isolation by distance.