Diaphragmatic lipid peroxidation in chronically loaded rats

Recent workindicates that free radical-mediated lipid peroxidation takes placewithin the diaphragm on strenuous contraction. This phenomenon has onlybeen demonstrated using fairly artificial experimental models and hasnot been studied during the type of sustained respiratory loadingtypically seen in patients with lung disease. The purpose of thepresent study was to measure the levels of several biochemical markersof protein oxidation (protein carbonyl levels) and lipid peroxidation(8-isoprostane, reduced glutathione, and oxidized glutathione levels)in diaphragms of rats subjected to chronic respiratory loading.Respiratory loading was accomplished by tracheal banding; groups ofanimals were loaded for 4, 8, or 12 days, and a group of sham-operated unloaded animals was used as controls. After loading, animals werekilled, diaphragm contractility was assessed in vitro by using aportion of the excised diaphragm, and the remaining diaphragm and thesoleus muscles were used for biochemical analysis. We found diminishedforce generation in diaphragms from all groups of banded animalscompared with muscles from controls. For example, twitch force averaged7.8 ± 0.8 (SE) N/cm² inunloaded animals and 4.0 ± 0.4, 3.0 ± 0.4, and 3.4 ± 0.4 N/cm² in animals loaded for 4, 8, and 12 days, respectively (P < 0.0001). Loading also elicited increases in diaphragmatic proteincarbonyl concentrations (P < 0.001),and the time course of alterations in carbonyl levels paralleledloading-induced alterations in the diaphragm force-frequencyrelationship. Although loading was also associated with increases indiaphragmatic 8-isoprostane levels (P < 0.003) and reductions in diaphragm reduced glutathione levels (P < 0.003), the time course ofchanges in these latter parameters did not correspond to alterations inforce. Soleus glutathione and carbonyl levels were not altered bybanding. We speculate that respiratory loading-induced alterations indiaphragmatic force generation may be related to free radical-mediatedprotein oxidation, but not to free radical-induced lipid peroxidation.     

Exercise causes blood glutathione oxidation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: prevention by O2 therapy

Viña, José, Emilio Servera, Miguel Asensi, JuanSastre, Federico V. Pallardó, José A. Ferrero, JoséGarcía-de-la-Asunción, Vicente Antón, and JulioMarín. Exercise causes blood glutathione oxidation inchronic obstructive pulmonary disease: prevention by O₂therapy. J. Appl. Physiol. 81(5):2199-2202, 1996.The aim of the present study was to determinewhether glutathione oxidation occurs in chronic obstructive pulmonarydisease (COPD) patients who perform exercise and whether this could beprevented. Blood glutathione red-ox ratio [oxidized-to-reducedglutathione (GSSG/GSH)] was significantly increased when patientsperformed exercise for a short period of time until exhaustion. Theirresting blood GSSG/GSH was 0.039 ± 0.008 (SD)(n = 5), whereas after exercise itincreased to 0.085 ± 0.019, P < 0.01. Glutathione oxidation associated with exercise was partiallyprevented by oxygen therapy (resting value: 0.037 ± 0.014, n = 5; after exercise: 0.047 ± 0.016, n = 5, P < 0.01). We conclude that lightexercise causes an oxidation of glutathione in COPD patients, which canbe partially prevented by oxygen therapy.

     

Ascorbate and glutathione homeostasis in vascular smooth muscle cells: cooperation with endothelial cells

Human umbilical vein smooth muscle cells (HUVSMCs) utilizeextracellular cystine, glutathione (GSH), andN-acetylcysteine (NAC) to synthesizecellular GSH. Extracellular cystine was effective from 5 µM, whereasGSH and NAC were required at 100 µM for comparable effects. Theefficacy of extracellular GSH was dependent on de novo GSH synthesis,indicating a dependence on cellular -glutamyltransferase (glutamyltranspeptidase). Coculture of syngenetic HUVSMCs and corresponding human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) on poroussupports restricted cystine- or GSH-stimulated synthesis of HUVSMC GSHwhen supplied on the "luminal" endothelial side. Thus HUVSMC GSHrapidly attained a steady-state level below that achieved in theabsence of interposed HUVECs. HUVSMCs also readily utilizeboth reduced ascorbate (AA) and oxidized dehydroascorbate (DHAA) overthe range 50-500 µM. Phloretin effectively blocked both AA- andDHAA-stimulated assimilation of intracellular AA, indicating a role fora glucose transporter in their transport. Uptake of extracellular AAwas also sensitive to extracellular, but not intracellular, thioldepletion. When AA was applied to the endothelial side of the coculturemodel, assimilation of intracellular AA in HUVSMCs was restricted to asteady-state level below that achieved by free access.

     

Irregularities and power law distributions in the breathing pattern in preterm and term infants

Unlike olderchildren, young infants are prone to develop unstable respiratorypatterns, suggesting important differences in their control ofbreathing. We examined the irregular breathing pattern in infants bymeasuring the time interval between breaths ("interbreathinterval"; IBI) assessed from abdominal movement during 2 h of sleepin 25 preterm infants at a postconceptional age of 40.5 ± 5.2 (SD) wk and in 14 term healthy infants at a postnatal age of 8.2 ± 4 wk. In 10 infants we performed longitudinal measurements on twooccasions. We developed a threshold algorithm for the detection of abreath so that an IBI included an apneic period and potentially someperiods of insufficient tidal breathing excursions (hypopneas). Theprobability density distribution (P) of IBIs follows a power law,P(IBI)~IBI,with the exponent  providing a statistical measurement of the relative risk of insufficient breathing. With maturation,  increased from 2.62 ± 0.4 at 41.2 ± 3.6 wk to 3.22 ± 0.4 at47.3 ± 6.4 wk postconceptional age, indicating a decrease in longhypopneas (for paired data P = 0.002). The statisticalproperties of IBI were well reproduced in a model of the respiratoryoscillator on the basis of two hypotheses:1) tonic neural inputs to the respiratory oscillator are noisy; and2) the noise explores a criticalregion where IBI diverges with decreasing tonic inputs. Accordingly,maturation of infant respiratory control can be explained by the tonicinputs moving away from this critical region. We conclude thatbreathing irregularities in infants can be characterized by , whichprovides a link between clinically accessible data and theneurophysiology of the respiratory oscillator.

     

Influence of Glutathione (GSH) on Sulphate Influx, Xylem Loading and Exudation in Excised Tobacco Roots

In short-term experiments sulphate influx of excised tobaccoroots {Nicotiana tabacum L. var. 'Samsun') followed monophasicMichaelis-Menten kinetics with an approximate K_m of 12 ±4 µM and v_max of 657 ± 211 nmol g^–1 FW h^–1.An inhibition of sulphate influx, xylem loading and exudationof more than 70% was achieved with 01 mM GSH within 1 h. Cysteinewas two orders of magnitude more effective as an inhibitor thanGSH. An inhibition of more than 75% was already obtained with1.0µM cysteine. It may, therefore, be assumed that GSHis decomposed to yield cysteine concentrations that may inhibitsulphate influx, xylem loading and exudation. When BSO, a specificinhibitor of the initial step of GSH synthesis, was added, cysteine-mediatedinhibition on sulphate influx, xylem loading and exudation wasstrongly diminished. Apparently, GSH synthesis is required toobtain inhibition of these processes by cysteine. The physiologicalmechanisms that may cause the inhibition of sulphate influx,xylem loading and exudation by glutathione are discussed. Key words: Sulphate transport, Nicotiana, Solanaceae, glutathione, cysteine, buthionine sulphoximine     

Phrenic motoneuron firing rates before, during, and after prolonged inspiratory resistive loading

Road, J. D., and A. M. Cairns. Phrenic motoneuronfiring rates before, during, and after prolonged inspiratory resistive loading. J. Appl. Physiol. 83(3):776-783, 1997.Phrenic motoneuron firing rates during briefinspiratory resistive loading (IRL) are high, and nearly all themotoneurons are recruited. Diaphragmatic fatigue has been difficult todemonstrate during IRL. Furthermore, evidence from studies in limbmuscles has shown variable motoneuron responses to prolongedhigh-intensity loads. We studied phrenic motoneuron firing ratesbefore, during, and after prolonged IRL in anesthetized rabbits. Of 117 phrenic axons, only 2 axons were not recruited; 41 axons were silentduring unloaded breathing but were recruited at higher loads. Silentaxons showed a more rapid increase in firing rate as the loadincreased. Phrenic motoneuron firing rates increased throughout theperiod of loading, whereas airway pressure swings did not. Afterprolonged IRL, higher motoneuron firing rates were needed during briefloads to produce the same airway pressure. No evidence of a decline inmotoneuron firing rates was seen at any point. We conclude that therespiratory muscles can be shown to demonstrate physiological responsesconsistent with fatigue during prolonged IRL, and activation rates arehigh and remain so throughout this prolonged loading.

     

Recovery of diaphragmatic function in awake sheep after two approaches to thoracic surgery

Imanaka, Hideaki, William R. Kimball, John C. Wain, MasajiNishimura, Kenichi Okubo, Dean Hess, and Robert M. Kacmarek. Recovery of diaphragmatic function in awake sheep after two approaches to thoracic surgery. J. Appl.Physiol. 83(5): 1733-1740, 1997.Video-assistedthoracoscopic surgery (VATS) is replacing thoracotomy, but no study hasaddressed the extent or duration of VATS-induced diaphragmaticalteration. We hypothesized that VATS would impair diaphragmaticfunction less and return diaphragmatic function faster thanthoracotomy. In eight sheep, sonomicrometers were randomly implanted onthe right costal diaphragm via VATS or thoracotomy. Diaphragmaticresting length, shortening fraction, and respiratory function weremeasured weekly during quiet breathing (QB) andCO₂ rebreathing for 4 wk. ForVATS, shortening fraction was smallest onpostoperative days 1 (POD 1) (6.4 ± 3.4 and12.9 ± 8.7% during QB and 10%CO₂ rebreathing, respectively) and7 (6.3 ± 3.4 and 16.9 ± 4.0%during QB and 10% CO₂rebreathing, respectively) and recovered by 3 wk (13.2 ± 1.8 and28.9 ± 8.0% during QB and 10%CO₂ rebreathing, respectively).For thoracotomy, shortening fraction at 10%CO₂ rebreathing was smaller onPODs 1, 7, 14 (15.9 ± 7.1, 13.6 ± 5.4, and 19.0 ± 6.9%) than onPOD 28 (29.9 ± 8.2%), but notduring QB on POD 1 or7 (7.5 ± 3.8 and 3.4 ± 2.6%)compared with POD 28 (10.7 ± 8.7%). Shortening fraction did not differ between surgeries. There wasno group difference in minute ventilation, respiratory rate,transdiaphragmatic pressure, or esophageal and gastric pressures. Inconclusion, although shortening fraction recovered faster for VATS,this translated into insignificant functional differences.

     

Task failure with lack of diaphragm fatigue during inspiratory resistive loading in human subjects

McKenzie, D. K., G. M. Allen, J. E. Butler, and S. C. Gandevia. Task failure with lack of diaphragm fatigue during inspiratory resistive loading in human subjects. J. Appl. Physiol. 82(6): 2011-2019, 1997.Taskfailure during inspiratory resistive loading is thought to beaccompanied by substantial peripheral fatigue of the inspiratorymuscles. Six healthy subjects performed eight resistive breathingtrials with loads of 35, 50, 75 and 90% of maximal inspiratorypressure (MIP) with and without supplemental oxygen. MIP measuredbefore, after, and at every minute during the trial increased slightlyduring the trials, even when corrected for lung volume (e.g., for 24 trials breathing air, 12.5% increase, P < 0.05). In some trials, taskfailure occurred before 20 min (end point of trial), and in thesetrials there was an increase in end-tidalPCO₂(P < 0.01), despite the absence of peripheral muscle fatigue. In four subjects (6 trials with task failure), there was no decline in twitch amplitude with bilateral phrenic stimulation or in voluntary activation of the diaphragm, eventhough end-tidal PCO₂ rose by 1.6 ± 0.9%. These results suggest that hypoventilation,CO₂ retention, and ultimate taskfailure during resistive breathing are not simply dependent on impairedforce-generating capacity of the diaphragm or impaired voluntaryactivation of the diaphragm.

     

Supraglottic airway pressure-flow relationships during oronasal airflow partitioning in dogs

Amis, T. C., N. O'Neill, T. Van der Touw, A. Tully, and A. Brancatisano. Supraglottic airway pressure-flow relationships during oronasal airflow partitioning in dogs. J. Appl.Physiol. 81(5): 1958-1964, 1996.We studiedpressure-flow relationships in the supraglottic airway of eight pronemouth-open anesthetized (intravenous chloralose or pentobarbitalsodium) crossbred dogs (weight 15-26 kg) during increasingrespiratory drive (CO₂administration; n = 4) and duringgraded-voltage electrical stimulation (SV;n = 4) of the soft palate muscles.During increased respiratory drive, inspiratory airflow occurred viaboth the nose (n) and mouth(m), with the ratio of n tom[%(n/m)]decreasing maximally from 16.0 ± 7.0 (SD) to 2.4 ± 1.6%(P < 0.05). Simultaneously, oralairway resistance at peak inspiratory flow decreased from 2.1 ± 1.0 to 0.4 ± 0.4 cmH₂O(P < 0.05), whereas nasal airway resistance did not change (14.4 ± 7.2 to 13.1 ± 5.4 cmH₂O;P = 0.29). Inspiratory pressure-flowplots of the oral airway were inversely curvilinear or more complex innature. Nasal pathway plots, however, demonstrated a positive linearrelationship in all animals (r = 0.87 ± 0.11; all P < 0.001). Duringelectrical stimulation of soft palate muscle contraction accompanied bygraded constant-inspiratory airflows of 45-385 ml/s through anisolated upper airway, %(n/m)decreased from 69 ± 50 to 10 ± 13% at a SV of 84 ± 3% ofmaximal SV (P < 0.001). At a SV of85 ± 1% of maximum, normalized oral airway resistance (expressedas percent baseline) fell to 5 ± 3%, whereas normalized nasalresistance was 80 ± 9% (both P < 0.03). Thus control of oronasal airflow partitioning in dogsappears mediated more by alterations in oral route geometry than byclosure of the nasopharyngeal airway.

     

Ultrasound evaluation of piglet diaphragm function before and after fatigue

Kocis, Keith C., Peter J. Radell, Wayne I. Sternberger, JaneE. Benson, Richard J. Traystman, and David G. Nichols. Ultrasound evaluation of piglet diaphragm function before and after fatigue. J. Appl. Physiol. 83(5):1654-1659, 1997.Clinically, a noninvasive measure of diaphragmfunction is needed. The purpose of this study is to determine whetherultrasonography can be used to 1)quantify diaphragm function and 2)identify fatigue in a piglet model. Five piglets were anesthetized withpentobarbital sodium and halothane and studied during the followingconditions: 1) baseline (spontaneous breathing); 2) baseline + CO₂ [inhaledCO₂ to increase arterial PCO₂ to 50-60 Torr (6.6-8kPa)]; 3) fatigue + CO₂ (fatigue induced with 30 minof phrenic nerve pacing); and 4)recovery + CO₂ (recovery after 1 hof mechanical ventilation). Ultrasound measurements of the posteriordiaphragm were made (inspiratory mean velocity) in the transverseplane. Images were obtained from the midline, just inferior to thexiphoid process, and perpendicular to the abdomen. M-mode measures weremade of the right posterior hemidiaphragm in the plane just lateral tothe inferior vena cava. Abdominal and esophageal pressures weremeasured and transdiaphragmatic pressure (Pdi) was calculated duringspontaneous (Sp) and paced (Pace) breaths. Arterial blood gases werealso measured. Pdi(Sp) and Pdi(Pace)during baseline + CO₂ were 8 ± 0.7 and 49 ± 11 cmH₂O, respectively, anddecreased to 6 ± 1.0 and 27 ± 7 cmH₂O,respectively, during fatigue + CO₂. Mean inspiratory velocityalso decreased from 13 ± 2 to 8 ± 1 cm/s during theseconditions. All variables returned to baseline during recovery + CO₂. Ultrasonography can beused to quantify diaphragm function and identify piglet diaphragm fatigue.

     

Kinematics and mechanics of midcostal diaphragm of dog

Boriek, Aladin M., Joseph R. Rodarte, and Theodore A. Wilson. Kinematics and mechanics of midcostal diaphragm of dog. J. Appl. Physiol. 83(4):1068-1075, 1997.Radiopaque markers were attached to theperitoneal surface of three neighboring muscle bundles in the midcostaldiaphragm of four dogs, and the locations of the markers were trackedby biplanar video fluoroscopy during quiet spontaneous breathing andduring inspiratory efforts against an occluded airway at three lungvolumes from functional residual capacity to total lung capacity inboth the prone and supine postures. Length and curvature of the musclebundles were determined from the data on marker location. Musclelengths for the inspiratory states, as a fraction of length atfunctional residual capacity, ranged from 0.89 ± 0.04 at endinspiration during spontaneous breathing down to 0.68 ± 0.07 duringinspiratory efforts at total lung capacity. The muscle bundles werefound to have the shape of circular arcs, with the three bundlesforming a section of a right circular cylinder. With increasing lungvolume and diaphragm displacement, the circular arcs rotate around theline of insertion on the chest wall, the arcs shorten, but the radiusof curvature remains nearly constant. Maximal transdiaphragmaticpressure was calculated from muscle curvature and maximaltension-length data from the literature. The calculated maximaltransdiaphragmatic pressure-length curve agrees well with the data ofRoad et al. (J. Appl. Physiol. 60:63-67, 1986).

     

Effect of ingested sodium bicarbonate on muscle force, fatigue, and recovery

Verbitsky, O., J. Mizrahi, M. Levin, and E. Isakov.Effect of ingested sodium bicarbonate on muscle force, fatigue, and recovery. J. Appl. Physiol. 83(2):333-337, 1997.The influence of acute ingestion ofNaHCO₃ on fatigue and recovery ofthe quadriceps femoris muscle after exercise was studied in six healthymale subjects. A bicycle ergometer was used for exercising under three loading conditions: test A, loadcorresponding to maximal oxygen consumption; testB, load in test A + 17%; test C, load intest B but performed 1 h after acuteingestion of NaHCO₃.Functional electrical stimulation (FES) was applied to provokeisometric contraction of the quadriceps femoris. The resulting kneetorque was monitored during fatigue (2-min chronic FES) and recovery (10-s FES every 10 min, for 40 min). Quadriceps torques were higher inthe presence of NaHCO₃(P < 0.05): withNaHCO₃ the peak, residual, andrecovery (after 40 min) normalized torques were, respectively, 0.68 ± 0.05 (SD), 0.58 ± 0.05, and 0.73 ± 0.05; withoutNaHCO₃ the values were 0.45 ± 0.04, 0.30 ± 0.06, and 0.63 ± 0.06. The increasedtorques obtained after acute ingestion ofNaHCO₃ indicate the possibleexistence of improved nonoxidative glycolysis in isometric contraction,resulting in reduced fatigue and enhanced recovery.

     

Effects of N2O narcosis on breathing and effort sensations during exercise and inspiratory resistive loading

Fothergill, D. M., and N. A. Carlson. Effects ofN₂O narcosis on breathing andeffort sensations during exercise and inspiratory resistive loading.J. Appl. Physiol. 81(4):1562-1571, 1996.The influence of nitrous oxide(N₂O) narcosis on the responses toexercise and inspiratory resistive loading was studied in thirteen maleUS Navy divers. Each diver performed an incremental bicycle exercisetest at 1 ATA to volitional exhaustion while breathing a 23%N₂O gas mixture and a nonnarcoticgas of the same PO₂, density, andviscosity. The same gas mixtures were used during four subsequent30-min steady-state submaximal exercise trials in which the subjectsbreathed the mixtures both with and without an inspiratory resistance(5.5 vs. 1.1 cmH₂O ^· s ^· l¹at 1 l/s). Throughout each test, subjective ratings of respiratory effort (RE), leg exertion, and narcosis were obtained with acategory-ratio scale. The level of narcosis was rated between slightand moderate for the N₂O mixturebut showed great individual variation. Perceived leg exertion and thetime to exhaustion were not significantly different with the twobreathing mixtures. Heart rate was unaffected by the gas mixture andinspiratory resistance at rest and during steady-state exercise but wassignificantly lower with the N₂O mixture during incremental exercise (P < 0.05). Despite significant increases in inspiratory occlusionpressure (13%; P < 0.05),esophageal pressure (12%; P < 0.001), expired minute ventilation (4%;P < 0.01), and the work rate ofbreathing (15%; P < 0.001) when the subjects breathed the N₂O mixture,RE during both steady-state and incremental exercise was 25% lowerwith the narcotic gas than with the nonnarcotic mixture(P < 0.05). We conclude that the narcotic-mediated changes in ventilation, heart rate, and RE induced by23% N₂O are not of sufficientmagnitude to influence exercise tolerance at surface pressure.Furthermore, the load-compensating respiratory reflexes responsible formaintaining ventilation during resistive breathing are not depressed byN₂O narcosis.

     

Design and calibration of unicapillary pneumotachographs

Giannella-Neto, A., C. Bellido, R. B. Barbosa, and M. F. Vidal Melo. Design and calibration of unicapillarypneumotachographs. J. Appl. Physiol.84(1): 335-343, 1998.This study presents a method for design andcalibration of unicapillary pneumotachographs for small-animalexperiments. The design, based on Poiseuille's law, defines a set ofinternal radius and length values that allows for laminar flow,measurable pressure differences, and minimal interference withanimal's respiratory mechanics and gas exchange. A third-orderpolynomial calibration (Pol) of the pressure-flow relationship wasemployed and compared with linear calibration (Lin). Tests were donefor conditions of ambient pressure (Pam) and positive pressure (Ppos)ventilation at different flow ranges. A physical model designed tomatch normal and low compliance in rats was used. At normal compliance,Pol provided lower errors than Lin for mixed (1-12 ml/s), mean(4-10 ml/s), and high (8-12 ml/s) flow rate calibrations forboth Pam and Ppos inspiratory tests (P < 0.001 for all conditions)and expiratory tests (P < 0.001 forall conditions). At low compliance, they differed significantly with8.6 ± 4.1% underestimation when Lin at Pam was used in Ppos tests.Ppos calibration, preferably in combination with Pol, should be used inthis case to minimize errors (Pol = 0.8 ± 0.5%, Lin = 6.5 ± 4.0%, P < 0.0005). Nonlinearcalibration may be useful for improvement of flow and volumemeasurements in small animals during both Pam and Ppos ventilation.

     

Respiratory system mechanics in sedated, paralyzed, morbidly obese patients

Pelosi, P., M. Croci, I. Ravagnan, M. Cerisara, P. Vicardi,A. Lissoni, and L. Gattinoni. Respiratory system mechanics insedated, paralyzed, morbidly obese patients J. Appl.Physiol. 82(3): 811-818, 1997.The effects ofinspiratory flow and inflation volume on the mechanical properties ofthe respiratory system in eight sedated and paralyzed postoperativemorbidly obese patients (aged 37.6 ± 11.8 yr who had never smokedand had normal preoperative seated spirometry) were investigated byusing the technique of rapid airway occlusion during constant-flowinflation. With the patients in the supine position, we measured theinterrupter resistance (Rint,rs), which in humans probably reflectsairway resistance, the "additional" resistance (Rrs) due toviscoelastic pressure dissipation and time-constant inequalities, andstatic respiratory elastance (Est,rs). Intra-abdominalpressure (IAP) was measured by using a bladder catheter, and functionalresidual capacity was measured by the helium-dilution technique. Theresults were compared with a previous study on 16 normal anesthetizedparalyzed humans. Compared with normal persons, we found that in obesesubjects: 1) functional residualcapacity was markedly lower (0.645 ± 0.208 liter) and IAP washigher (24 ± 2.2 cmH₂O);2) alveolar-arterial oxygenationgradient was increased (178 ± 59 mmHg);3) the volume-pressure curve of therespiratory system was curvilinear with an "inflection" point;4) Est,rs, Rint,rs, and Rrs werehigher than normal (29.3 ± 5.04 cmH₂O/l, 5.9 ± 2.4 cmH₂O ^· l^{1 ·} s,and 6.4 ± 1.6 cmH₂O ^· l^{1 ·} s,respectively); 5) Rint,rs increasedwith increasing inspiratory flow, Est,rs did not change, and Rrsdecreased progressively; and 6) withincreasing inflation volume, Rint,rs and Est,rs decreased, whereasRrs rose progressively. Overall, our data suggest that obesesubjects during sedation and paralysis are characterized by hypoxemiaand marked alterations of the mechanical properties of the respiratorysystem, largely explained by a reduction in lung volume due to theexcessive unopposed IAP.

     

Myocardial blood flow heterogeneity in shock and small-volume resuscitation in pigs with coronary stenosis

Kleen, Martin, Martin Welte, Peter Lackermeier, OliverHabler, Gregor Kemming, and Konrad Messmer. Myocardial blood flowheterogeneity in shock and small-volume resuscitation in pigs withcoronary stenosis. J. Appl. Physiol.83(6): 1832-1841, 1997.We analyzed the effects of shock andsmall-volume resuscitation in the presence of coronary stenosis onfractal dimension (D) and spatialcorrelation (SC) of regional myocardial perfusion. Hemorrhagic shockwas induced and maintained for 1 h. Pigs were resuscitated withhypertonic saline-dextran 60 [HSDex, 10% of shed blood volume(SBV)] or normal saline (NS; 80% of SBV). Therapy was continuedafter 30 min with dextran (10% SBV). At baseline, D was 1.39 ± 0.06 (mean ± SE;HSDex group) and 1.34 ± 0.04 (NS group). SC was 0.26 ± 0.07 (HSDex) and 0.26 ± 0.04 (NS). Left anterior descending coronaryartery stenosis changed neither D norSC. Shock significantly reduced D(i.e., homogenized perfusion): 1.26 ± 0.06 (HSDex) and 1.23 ± 0.05 (NS). SC was increased: 0.41 ± 0.1 (HSDex) and 0.48 ± 0.07 (NS). Fluid therapy with HSDex further decreasedD to 1.22 ± 0.05, whereas NS didnot change D. SC was increased by bothHSDex (0.56 ± 0.1) and NS (0.53 ± 0.06). At 1 h afterresuscitation, SC was constant in both groups, andD was reduced only in the NS group(1.18 ± 0.02). We conclude that hemorrhagic shock homogenizedregional myocardial perfusion in coronary stenosis and that fluidtherapy failed to restore this.

     

Effect of upper airway negative pressure on inspiratory drive during sleep

To determine the effect of upper airway(UA) negative pressure and collapse during inspiration on regulation ofbreathing, we studied four unanesthetized female dogs duringwakefulness and sleep while they breathed via a fenestratedtracheostomy tube, which was sealed around the permanent trachealstoma. The snout was sealed with an airtight mask, thereby isolatingthe UA when the fenestration (Fen) was closed and exposing the UA tointrathoracic pressure changes, but not to flow changes, when Fen wasopen. During tracheal occlusion with Fen closed, inspiratory time(TI) increased duringwakefulness, non-rapid-eye-movement (NREM) sleep and rapid-eye-movement(REM) sleep (155 ± 8, 164 ± 11, and 161 ± 32%,respectively), reflecting the removal of inhibitory lung inflationreflexes. During tracheal occlusion with Fen open (vs. Fen closed):1) the UA remained patent;2)TI further increased duringwakefulness and NREM (215 ± 52 and 197 ± 28%, respectively) but nonsignificantly during REM sleep (196 ± 42%);3) mean rate of rise of diaphragmEMG (EMGdi/TI) and rate offall of tracheal pressure(Ptr/TI) were decreased,reflecting an additional inhibitory input from UA receptors; and4) bothEMGdi/TI andPtr/TI were decreasedproportionately more as inspiration proceeded, suggesting greaterreflex inhibition later in the effort. Similar inhibitory effects ofexposing the UA to negative pressure (via an open tracheal Fen) wereseen when an inspiratory resistive load was applied over severalbreaths during wakefulness and sleep. These inhibitory effectspersisted even in the face of rising chemical stimuli. This inhibitionof inspiratory motor output is alinear within an inspiration andreflects the activation of UA pressure-sensitive receptors by UAdistortion, with greater distortion possibly occurring later in theeffort.

     

Functional role and structure of the scalene: an accessory inspiratory muscle in hamster

Fournier, Mario, and Michael I. Lewis. Functional roleand structure of the scalene: an accessory inspiratory muscle inhamster. J. Appl. Physiol. 81(6):2436-2444, 1996.Although the scalene muscle (Sca) is a primaryinspiratory muscle in humans, its respiratory function in other speciesis less clear. The electromyographic (EMG) activity of the Sca wasstudied during resting ventilation (eupnea) in both the awake andanesthetized hamster and after a variety of respiratory challenges inthe anesthetized animal. The EMG activities of the medial Sca and thecostal diaphragm were compared. The medial Sca, the major component ofthe Sca, originates from cervical transverse processes 2 to 5 andinserts primarily onto rib 4, with a small segment onto rib 3. In both the anesthetized and awake animal, the Sca was always silent during quiet breathing. WithCO₂-stimulated hyperpnea, the Scawas always recruited during inspiration in phase with the diaphragm.Active recruitment of the Sca was also observed after resistive loading and total airway occlusion. After ipsilateral phrenicotomy, the Sca waspersistently recruited during eupnea. The specificity of the EMGsignals was tested both by excluding cross contamination from other ribcage muscles and by selective denervation studies. Muscle spindles wereidentified in the medial Sca histochemically, suggesting that therespiratory activity of the Sca can also be modulated by changes inmuscle length and/or load. These results indicate that the Scafunctions as an accessory inspiratory muscle in the hamster and mayplay an important role in conditions of chronic load.

     

Effects of nandrolone decanoate on respiratory and peripheral muscles in male and female rats

Bisschop, Anja, Ghislaine Gayan-Ramirez, HélèneRollier, P. N. Richard Dekhuijzen, René Dom, Vera de Bock, andMarc Decramer. Effects of nandrolone decanoate on respiratory and peripheral muscles in male and female rats. J. Appl.Physiol. 82(4): 1112-1118, 1997.Thirty maleand 18 female adult rats received weekly an intramuscular injection ofeither saline (control; C), 1.5 mg/kg (low-dose; LD) nandrolonedecanoate or 7.5 mg/kg (high-dose; HD) nandrolone decanoate during 5 wk. Compared with respective C, growth rate was stunted in male HD ratsfrom 2 wk of treatment on, whereas it was enhanced in female LD and HDrats after 1 wk. Mass of all muscles studied varied proportionally tobody weight, except for the gastrocnemius (males: 0.49 ± 0.04 vs. C: 0.52 ± 0.03%, not significant; females: 0.17 ± 0.01 vs. C: 0.15 ± 0.01%, P < 0.05). In vitro contractile andfatigue properties of the diaphragm remained unchanged, except for adecrease in twitch kinetics (time to peak tension: C, 21 ± 2; LD,19 ± 1; HD, 19 ± 2 ms, P < 0.05; half-relaxation time: C, 26 ± 5, LD, 25 ± 5, HD, 23 ± 3 ms, P < 0.01).Histochemistry of the diaphragm and the gastrocnemius revealed asignificant increase in type IIx/b dimensions. In the gastrocnemius,type I fiber dimensions also increased. A pair-fed study, includinganother 24 female rats, showed that the changes in oral food intakeonly partly accounted for the observed anabolic effects.

     

The Role of Intracellular Glutathione in Inorganic Mercury-Induced Toxicity in Neuroblastoma Cells

It is well known that antioxidants containing sulfhydryl (−SH) groups are protective against the toxic effects of mercury. The current study was designed to elucidate the mechanism(s) of the cytoprotective effects of glutathione (GSH) and N-acetylcysteine (NAC) against the toxicity of inorganic mercury (HgCl₂) in neuroblastoma cells (N-2A). The obtained results demonstrated the protective effects of these compounds in a dose dependant manner up to 95 and 74% cell viability, respectively as compared to the control of HgCl₂ of 10%. The administration of buthionine sulfoximine (BSO), an inhibitor of GSH synthesis, increased the toxicity of HgCl₂ in a dose dependent manner. Moreover, BSO treatment attenuated the levels of the cellular free −SH concentrations at low concentrations (1–100 μM) of HgCl₂. The data also show that cellular thiol concentrations were augmented in the presence of GSH and NAC and these compounds were cytoprotective against HgCl₂ and this is due to up regulating of GSH synthesis. A reduction in intracellular levels of GSH was observed with treatment of HgCl₂. In addition, the ratio of GSH/GSSG increased from 16:1 to 50:1 from 1 to 10 μM concentration of HgCl_2. The ratio of GSH/GSSG then decreased from 4:1 to 0.5:1 with the increase of concentration of HgCl₂ between 100 μM and 1 mM due to the collapse of the N-2A cells. It was of interest to note that the synthesis of GSH was stimulated in cells exposed to low concentration of HgCl₂ when extra GSH is available. These data support the idea that the loss of GSH plays a contributing role to the toxic effects of HgCl₂ and that inorganic mercury adversely affects viability, through altering intracellular −SH concentrations. The data further indicate that the availability of GSH to the cells may not be sufficient to provide protection against mercury toxicity and the de novo synthesis of intracellular GSH is required to prevent the damaging effects of mercury.