粤港澳大湾区不同恢复模式植物群落结构与生态系统健康的动态变化

基于长期定位监测数据,量化揭示了红锥纯林（Castanopsis hystrix）、10种与30种乡土树种混交林等3种乡土人工林植物群落的生物量、物种多样性、生物热力学健康水平（eco-exergy）和土壤理化性状在种植后13年内的发展动态,并与尾叶桉（Eucalyptus urophylla）纯林,以及自然恢复系统（灌草坡）进行了比较。结果表明：（1）研究期间,5种恢复模式的植物群落生物量均呈现波动上升趋势,但在发展节率上有所差异。13龄时的尾叶桉纯林与两种乡土树种混交林生物量显著高于其各自1龄时的水平,且显著高于自然恢复灌草坡;相较于其他人工林,红锥纯林生物量增长缓慢,但快于灌草坡;（2）5种恢复模式植物群落的物种多样性（物种丰富度、Shannon-Wiener指数、Pielou均匀度指数）在6至13龄间均呈下降趋势,且30种乡土树种混交林下降趋势最为显著。13龄时,两种混交林Shannon-Wiener指数略高于两种纯林,显著高于灌草坡;10种乡土树种混交林的Pielou均匀度指数略高于红锥纯林与30种乡土树种混交林,显著高于尾叶桉纯林与灌草坡。（3）4种人工林的植物群落生物热力学健康水平皆在6至13龄间显著增加;13龄时两种乡土混交林群落生态显著高于两种纯林,两种纯林显著高于灌草坡,且该差异主要源自于乔木层生态的差异。（4）不同植被恢复模式中,10种乡土树种混交林土壤养分的累积效果最佳,13龄时其土壤总氮含量显著高于红锥纯林和自然恢复灌草坡,但与30种乡土树种混交林和尾叶桉纯林无显著差异。（5）冗余分析结果显示,研究期间植被与土壤间的相关关系逐步建立,土壤理化性状对地上植被结构变化的解释度由1龄时的73.3%逐步上升至13龄时的82.0%,但只有土壤有机碳含量在13龄时与地上植被结构的相关性达到显著水平。上述结果表明,乡土种人工林与外来种人工纯林群落结构、生物热力学健康水平、及植被与土壤间关系的发展规律相似,且相对而言,混交林优于纯林,纯林优于自然恢复灌草坡。植被恢复的起始物种丰富度并不是越高越好;发展到13龄时,10种乡土树种混交林在植被结构与土壤改良方面均优于30种乡土树种混交林。植被与土壤间相关关系的建立是一个长期的过程,不同植被恢复模式对土壤理化性状的差异性影响难以在短期内有所显现。     

不同森林恢复方式对我国南方红壤区土壤质量的影响

2008-2009年在我国南方红壤区,研究了3种典型森林恢复方式(自然恢复的天然次生林、人工恢复的本地种马尾松人工林和引进种湿地松人工林)对林地土壤质量的影响.结果表明： 天然次生林的土壤含水量、土壤容重、土壤粒径构成、土壤全碳、全氮、全磷、有机碳、速效氮、速效磷、速效钾含量均优于两种人工林.综合土壤物理性状、化学性状和微生物性状得到土壤质量综合指数.天然次生林土壤的综合质量指数(1.20±0.10)显著高于马尾松人工林(0.59±0.03)和湿地松人工林(0.59±0.06),而两种人工林之间差异不显著.在我国南方红壤区,自然恢复的天然次生林土壤质量优于人工恢复的马尾松林和湿地松林.     

采伐林窗对白云山3种人工林林下植物多样性的早期影响

马尾松、杉木和毛竹是长江流域低山丘陵地区的主要用材树种,其人工林群落结构简单和生物多样性低下是普遍存在的生态学问题.为了解采伐林窗对3种人工林林下植物多样性的影响,选择生境条件基本一致的3种林分,以林下为对照,比较了通过采伐获得的不同大小林窗间植物生活型构成和多样性差异.结果表明: 采伐林窗后2年,3种林分中杉木林的植物种类最多,达57种,其次是毛竹林(53种)和马尾松林(41种).在采伐林窗初期,杉木林和毛竹林林窗内物种数显著高于对照,但马尾松林林窗与对照没有显著差异.500 m²林窗内的高位芽植物比例显著高于其他林窗,250 m²林窗内地面芽和一年生植物比例较高,而50 m²林窗内地下芽植物的比例较高.相同林分不同大小林窗之间物种相似度高于其与对照之间,也高于与其他林分林窗之间;林分林窗与其他林分对照的相似度普遍较低.不同大小林窗下物种丰富度、Simpson生态优势度、Shannon多样性指数均存在显著差异;林分类型对物种丰富度和Shannon多样性指数有显著影响,但对Simpson生态优势度没有影响;林窗大小和林分类型的交互作用对所有指数均无显著影响.通过采伐林窗,林下植物生活型谱发生了变化,植物多样性水平有所提高.     

不同类型城市森林对土壤肥力的影响

以东北林业大学城市林业示范研究基地中9种人工林(兴安落叶松林、樟子松林、黑皮油松林、黄波罗林、胡桃楸林、水曲柳林、白桦林、蒙古栎林、针阔混交林)及附近的农耕地和撂荒地土壤为研究对象,通过对林地土壤不同层次pH值、有机质及主要养分含量的测定分析,研究了不同林型对土壤肥力的影响.结果表明：阔叶林(除蒙古栎林)的土壤趋于中性,针阔混交林、兴安落叶松林、樟子松林和黑皮油松林的土壤呈微酸性,蒙古栎林的土壤呈酸性;随土壤深度增加,土壤有机质、水解氮、速效钾、有效磷、全氮、全磷含量均呈下降趋势.不同林地土壤同一层次化学指标整体差异显著(P＜0.05).土壤肥力优劣为：水曲柳林>黄波罗林>针阔混交林>胡桃楸林>白桦林>撂荒地>农耕地>樟子松林>兴安落叶松林>蒙古栎林>黑皮油松林,说明阔叶林(除蒙古栎林)和针阔混交林中的土壤肥力增加,而针叶林的土壤肥力趋于下降.     

Conversion of Andean montane forests into plantations: Effects on soil characteristics,microorganisms, and microarthropods

Tropical montane forests in the Andes are subjected to deforestation and subsequent transformation into pastures. Abandoned pastures are frequently reforested by planting monoculture timber plantations, resulting in reduced aboveground diversity and changes in soil characteristics compared to primary forests. In this study, we evaluated differences in soil properties (litter layer thickness, pH, water content, and C-to-N ratio) between degraded primary montane forest and monoculture pine (Pinus patula) and alder (Alnus acuminata) plantations and their effects on density, diversity, and community structure of litter and soil-living mesofauna, with focus on oribatid mites (Acariformes). The study was performed in a montane region in the southern Ecuadorian Andes (2,000–2,600 m a.s.l.). C-to-N ratios in the litter and upper 5 cm soil layer were higher in pine plantations, while other soil characteristics were similar between vegetation types. Surprisingly, microbial biomass and density of soil mesofauna in the litter layer did not differ between vegetation types, while density and species richness of oribatid mites were higher in pine plantations. Community structure of oribatid mites differed between vegetation types with only a few species overlapping. The results indicate that quality and diversity of litter were not the major factors regulating the mesofauna community. Instead, soil animals benefited from increased habitat structure in thicker litter layers and potentially increased availability of root-derived resources. Overall, the results suggest that from a soil animal perspective, monoculture plantations are less detrimental than commonly assumed and enrichment of abandoned plantations with native tree species may help to restore tropical montane forests.     

不同种植年代油松林植物多样性及土壤养分变化

通过样地调查,以空间代替时间的方法,对黄土高原马栏林区不同恢复阶段油松人工林群落物种多样性和土壤养分的变化进行了研究。结果表明:马栏林区油松人工林物种丰富度、多样性和均匀度都在波动中随着恢复年限的增加逐渐增加,物种丰富度在种植30年左右的油松林内达到最大,物种均匀度指数和优势度指数在种植20年左右的油松林内达到最大;人工种植油松林在很大程度上改变了群落面貌,物种组成和群落结构均与撂荒地有较大不同,撂荒地与油松林群落物种组成相似性较小,种植22年与28年的油松林Sorensen指数最大。油松人工林种植20年后物种组成已经基本稳定,在恢复后期物种组成变化不大;种植油松对恢复土壤肥力有一定的帮助,种植28年油松林土壤的有机质、全氮和碱解氮含量都较其它种植年代高,随着恢复年限的增加,油松人工林腐殖质不断增厚,土壤的pH值也有所增加,土壤越来越偏碱性。     

The effect of evergreen and deciduous coniferous plantations on the field layer and seed bank of native woodlands

Vegetation and seed bank changes due to the replacement of a native woodland 29 yr ago by coniferous plantations (evergreen coniferous Pinus: radiata and deciduous coniferous Larix kaempferi ) were studied in a replicated experiment in the Basque Country, northern Spain In the vegetation the species richness was lower in both coniferous plantations than in the native woodland but there was no significant difference in species richness between the two coniferous plantations The highest similanty between the vegetation and the seed bank was in the P radiata plantations (0 51) There was higher vegetation similarity between the native woodland and the larch plantation (0 65) than that with the pine plantation (0 58) Seed bank species richness was higher in the larch plantation than in the native woodland but species richness in the seed bank did not differ between the coniferous plantations The seed bank showed no difference in the species similarity between the plantations and the native woodland This was mainly due to the similanty between the broad ranged species In the coniferous plantations the vegetation diversity was lower than in the native woodland, however, in the seed bank the diversity was higher Coniferous plantations affected mainly the shade-tolerant and shade-intolerant vernals ( Caltha palustris, Galium odoratum, Heleborus viridis and Saxifraga hirsula ), which disappeared from the field layer of plantations while the shade-intolerant not vemals were favoured by the plantations ( Blackstonia perfoliata, Danthonia decumbens, Deschampsia flexuosa, Hypericum androsaemum, Holcus lanatus, Lotus cormiculatus and Plantago lanceolata ) There was no significant difference in vegetation or seed bank between the two types of coniferous plantations     

Diversity and composition of carabids during a forestry cycle

Carabids (Carabidae, Coleoptera) were studied for 2 yearsto explore changes in their diversity and composition during a forestry cycle inthe Hungarian Mountain Range. Native beech forest was clear-cut and replantedwith Norway spruce. Recently planted (5 years old), young (15years old), middle-aged (30 years old) and old spruceplantations (50 years old) were studied using pitfall traps. Ourresults showed that the species richness of carabids was significantly lower inthe plantations than in the native beech forest. Species composition washomogeneous in the beech forest. -Diversity of the 15–30year old plantations was also low, and it increased slightlytowards ageing. Heterogeneity of the species composition of the 5year old plantation was higher than that of the others, whichreflected the patchiness of the young plantation. The main tendencies of thecompositional changes were as follows. Deciduous forest specialists decreasedsignificantly in abundance in the plantations; they appeared in highabundance only in the beech forest. Species characteristic of open habitatsincreased remarkably in abundance in the recently established plantation.Multiple linear regression between the diversity of carabids and of 12environmental variables shows that the pH and compaction of the soil, and thecover of leaf litter had a significant effect in determining diversity ofcarabids.     

华南典型尾叶桉纯林经营对土壤理化性质、微生物和线虫群落的影响

桉树是我国华南地区的重要速生营林树种,具备极高的经济价值,然而我国桉树人工林的发展还存在巨大争议,桉树营林的生态环境效应还有待进一步考究。针对我国华南地区典型尾叶桉(Eucalyptus urophylla)纯林经营的潜在生态问题,选取广东鹤山森林生态系统国家野外研究站的10树种混交林(10 species mixed forest plantation, 10S)、30树种混交林(30 species mixed forest plantation, 30S)和桉树纯林(Eucalyptus monoculture, E)三种林型,另外设置桉树砍伐(Eucalyptus cutting, EC)和桉树砍伐清除林下灌草(Eucalyptus cutting and understory removal, ECUr)这两种常见经营措施的处理,通过比较不同林型和管理措施下土壤理化性质和生物指标的差异,解析了桉树营林对土壤理化特性、土壤微生物以及线虫群落的影响。本结果表明：三种林型间的土壤理化特性没有显著差异,但桉树纯林的土壤真菌生物量、真菌细菌比、食细菌线虫多度显著高于10和30树种混交林...     

Lichen diversity and composition in Araucaria forests and tree monocultures in southern Brazil

Tree plantations for commercial use have been replacing native ecosystems all over the world. We investigated how forest conversion to plantations of exotic and native tree species may influence lichen diversity and composition in a southern Brazilian landscape. The lichen community from the National Forest of São Francisco de Paula was studied using three stands of each of the four vegetation types: native Araucaria forest and plantations of Araucaria, Pine and Eucalyptus trees. All plantation stands were surrounded by native Araucaria forest, were of smaller size and were allowed to endure longer than commercially managed plantations. Lichen species and their cover abundance were recorded on tree trunks from 30 to 150 cm above soil level in ten host-trees that were randomly selected in each replication. Seventy-eight lichen species, from 18 genera and 9 families, were registered. Conversion of native forest to plantations of exotic tree species altered species composition by reducing the occurrence of shade tolerant lichens. Plantations of Araucaria angustifolia sustained the highest lichen diversity measured, because this is an excellent host species. These results suggest that a greater diversity of lichens can be preserved in the landscape, if plantations of the exotic Pinus and Eucalyptus genera are replaced by plantations of this native species.     

南亚热带马尾松-红椎混交林及其纯林土壤细菌群落结构与功能

营建乡土阔叶树种人工纯林和针阔混交林是我国亚热带地区森林经营的发展趋势,但对人工纯林和针阔混交林土壤细菌群落结构及功能知之甚少。本研究以南亚热带乡土针叶树种马尾松、阔叶树种红椎人工纯林及二者的混交林为对象,运用细菌16S rRNA基因高通量测序技术和PICRUSt基因功能预测,分析了3种人工林不同土层(0～20、20～40和40～60 cm)土壤细菌群落的结构与功能。结果表明: 混交林和马尾松林土壤细菌群落结构相似,但与红椎林差异显著,红椎林土壤细菌群落多样性、生物通路代谢功能和氮循环功能低于马尾松林和混交林;土壤全氮、硝态氮和C/N是导致红椎林与马尾松林和混交林土壤细菌群落结构及功能差异的主要土壤理化因子。就土壤细菌群落结构与功能而言,在该地区营造红椎和马尾松针阔混交林要优于红椎纯林。     

Effects of management intensity on ant diversity in cocoa plantation (Oume,centre west Côte d’Ivoire)

Anthropogenic habitat modifications, including conversion of forest to agricultural production cause losses of native species. In this study we examined the losses suffered by ant communities in relation to the intensity of management in cocoa plantations established in former tropical forest. An extensive sampling protocol consisting of pitfall trapping, leaf litter sampling, soil sampling and hand sampling was used to characterize ant species richness and composition in the native forest and compare it with three cocoa farms differing in their management intensity. Species richness was negatively correlated with management intensity and differed greatly between management practices and the forest. Two subfamilies (Myrmicinae and Amblyoponinae) showed a significant negative correlation with agricultural intensification probably because their species are constrained to living in forest like habitat. The species composition differed greatly between management practices and the forest. Intensively and moderately managed cocoa plantations were most dissimilar to the forest. In contrast, forest ants were well represented in the least intensively managed plantation. Overall, the findings of this study show that only slightly managed cocoa plantations sustain an ant diversity that comes close to that of the forest. This also holds true for cocoa plantations on former agricultural, and thus previously heavily used, land. The findings may help in the conservation of biodiversity as management practices most likely to sustain forest like ant communities have been identified.     

有机荔枝园、常规荔枝园和天然荔枝园蜘蛛类群的比较

2004～2005年,对珠海市斗门区有机、常规和天然荔枝园的蜘蛛群落进行了系统的调查和分析,结果表明,不同类型荔枝园蜘蛛群落丰富度S值天然＞有机＞常规荔枝园;多样性指数H'值有机＞天然＞常规荔枝园;均匀度E值有机＞天然＞常规荔枝园.说明进行有机管理的荔枝园对蜘蛛群落的多样性影响较小,有利于保护和发挥天敌的自然控制力.有机、常规荔枝园的优势类群均为园蛛科、皿蛛科和球蛛科,而天然荔枝园除这三者外,跳蛛科也明显增加.除天气因素外,更重要的还与人为农事活动干扰程度直接相关.有机荔枝园不使用化学农药,蜘蛛种类多,个体数也较多.而常规荔枝园由于频繁地使用了化学合成物质,蜘蛛种类和数量较少.说明施用大量的化学农药,对蜘蛛的影响较大.     

Conservation opportunities in commercial plantations: The case of mammals

Enhancing the structural complexity of commercial plantations could enrich the presence of mammals within them. We tested this hypothesis through a meta-analysis in order to determine whether more complex plantations, with a dense understory, can sustain more mammal diversity and if mammals respond differently pending on its taxonomic affiliation, body size, and diet group. We recorded 71 cases of forest–plantation comparisons, and 10 cases of plantation–plantation comparisons. Both richness and abundance of native mammals were lower in plantations than in native forests, although there was no significant difference in body size, dietary group, and taxonomic affiliation between those two habitats. Complex plantations showed higher richness and abundance of native mammals, independently of the plantation type. Taxonomic affiliation, body size and diet did not significantly differ between complex and simple plantations. Structural complexity of commercial plantations may increase mammal diversity, hence, enriching the auxiliary value of forestry plantations for biological conservation. Therefore, forest plantation management ought to pursue the enhancement of structural complexity.     

嫩江沙地不同年龄樟子松人工林种群结构与林下物种多样性动态

以嫩江沙地樟子松防风固沙人工林为对象,调查不同发育阶段(24、29、39和43年生)林分的种群结构、林下物种组成以及多样性的变化.结果表明:研究期间,所有樟子松人工固沙林中均未见更新幼苗.不同发育阶段的樟子松人工林在胸径和高度上有显著差异,随着林龄的增加,小径级个体的比例明显降低,大径级个体增多,种群趋于成熟,径级结构除43年生外均呈正态分布.林下物种共计33种,隶属于15科28属,禾本科的狗尾草为林下草本植被的优势种,但其优势程度随林龄增加而逐渐减小;随着林龄的增加,1年生植物的比例减少,多年生植物比例增加;Simpson多样性指数与Pielou均匀度指数差异不显著,39年生樟子松的丰富度指数、Shannon多样性指数和Alatalo均匀度指数均显著高于24年生樟子松,群落的物种多样性有所改善.     

Biodiversity values of abandoned teak,Tectona grandis plantations in southern Western Ghats: Is there a need for management intervention?

Abandoned plantations could potentially support a large number of native tree species through succession and restore the original tree community. In order to assess the ability of abandoned teak plantations to recover through regeneration, teak stands from 29 to 80 years old were sampled for seedling and sapling density, species richness and the use by large ungulates in the southern Western Ghats using 10 m circular plots. The influence of the forest-plantation edge was also studied. There was regeneration of a species-rich tree community in the understorey of abandoned teak plantations. However, regeneration was arrested, and thereby the large girth-class tree community remained species-poor. There was no significant change in the tree species richness with distance from natural forest, suggesting that the forest-plantation edge had little influence on the penetration of native tree species inside plantations. Asian elephant and Indian gaur dung densities were significantly lower in the plantations than in the forest. Indian gaur and sambar used the younger plantations intensively, and the density of their dung was negatively correlated with age of the plantation. Abandonment of mature teak stands arrested the succession of native trees. We provide evidence that abandoned teak plantations might not serve as suitable habitats for large herbivores during the dry months of the year in the region. The study highlights the need for active management of mature teak plantations inside wildlife reserves, in order to promote succession and improve the habitat for wild flora and fauna in the Western Ghats.     

南方红壤区3种典型森林恢复方式对植物群落多样性的影响

合理的森林恢复方式能提高植物多样性,进而提高生态系统服务功能.在我国南方红壤区研究了3种典型森林恢复方式(引进种恢复的湿地松(Pinus elliottii)人工林本地种恢复的马尾松(Pinus massoniana)人工林和自然恢复的天然次生林)的植物区系构成和植物群落多样性.结果表明:(1)湿地松人工林有155种植物,隶属66科118属,马尾松人工林有137种植物,隶属59科97属;天然次生林有226种植物,隶属86科160属,3种森林恢复方式的乔木层、灌木层和草本层的优势科属明显不同,马尾松人工林的优势物种和天然次生林更相似;(2)天然次生林的植物区系基本构成、植物区系类型种类高于马尾松人工林和湿地松人工林,并且天然次生林的温带成分比例高于湿地松人工林;(3)恢复方式对植物群落的多样性指数有显著影响,天然次生林的物种丰富度、辛普森指数明显高于马尾松人工林和湿地松人工林,两种人工林之间差异不显著;(4)3种森林恢复方式的植物群落结构存在显著差异,相比湿地松人工林,马尾松人工林的植物群落组成与天然次生林更相似.总之,自然恢复的天然次生林植物群落多样性高于人工恢复的马尾松人工林和湿地松人工林,本地种马尾松人工林在维持区域植物群落结构功能上优于引进种湿地松人工林.     

我国南方4种常见人工林林下植物多样性特征及影响因素

为了解长期植被恢复的成熟人工林林下植物组成与多样性特征及其影响因素,基于广东鹤山生态系统国家野外科学观测研究站的南亚热带人工林生态系统,对环境相似(坡度、坡向、海拔)、30 a生4种类型人工林(桉树混交林、马占相思纯林、乡土混交林、针叶混交林)进行调查研究,分析林下植物组成和物种多样性(Shannon-Wiener指数、Simpson指数、Pielou指数)特征。结果表明,人工林林下植物类型丰富,均可形成乔-灌-草垂直结构;4种林型林下植物组成既有相似性,也有差异性,桉树混交林与针叶混交林、马占相思纯林与乡土混交林的灌木层组成相似;桉树混交林与马占相思纯林、乡土混交林与针叶混交林的草本层组成相似,而桉树混交林与针叶混交林的草本层组成极不相似。林分类型影响林下植物多样性,马占相思纯林林下灌草多样性显著低于其他3种混交林(P<0.05),灌木物种数、个体数最少;针叶混交林林下物种丰富度最高。林分郁闭度与林下植物多样性呈正相关(P<0.001),林下植物分布与土壤养分含量相关,桉树混交林、马占相思纯林林下植物多样性与不同形态氮含量相关,有效磷、全磷影响乡土混交林林下物种的分布,针叶混交林受土壤酸碱度、全钾的影响较为明显。在4种人工林林下植物群落中,乡土混交林多样性,均匀度最高,优势度最低,具有更佳的保育和维持林下生物多样性功能。因此,乡土树种混交林更适用于生态公益林构建或对一些针叶林及外来树种纯林进行林分改造。     

秦岭西部山地次生林和人工林大型土壤动物群落结构特征

人类对次生林生态系统的长期扰动必然会对地下生态过程产生深刻影响,而土壤动物群落结构和功能多样性对地下生态过程的演变有重要的指示意义.本文以小陇山林区恢复近30年的次生林和栽植近30年的油松、日本落叶松、欧洲云杉和粗枝云杉林为对象,通过对5种林型土壤动物群落密度调查,采用PCA排序和方差分析等方法,探讨了不同林型土壤动物群落结构特征和营养结构.结果表明:油松林和日本落叶松林土壤动物群落密度是次生林的3.0和2.1倍;油松和日本落叶松人工林土壤动物群落中消费者/分解者比值明显高于次生林,油松林和日本落叶松林消费者/分解者的比值显著高于欧洲云杉林和粗枝云杉林;不同人工林土壤动物群落结构存在明显差异,油松林和日本落叶松林土壤动物群落密度是粗枝云杉林的4.5和3.1倍,而油松林土壤动物群落类群丰富度是欧洲云杉林和粗枝云杉林的1.5倍.     

Spillover of Insects from Rain Forest into Adjacent Oil Palm Plantations

Conversion of natural forest to oil palm plantations is a major threat to biodiversity in Southeast Asia. The retention of natural forest habitats within plantations has been proposed as a method to reduce biodiversity losses in agricultural areas, and we examined whether forest areas resulted in spillover of species into adjacent oil palm plantations. We sampled ants and butterflies along two 2‐km transects across an ecotone from plantation into adjacent forest in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo. Species richness of both taxa was reduced in plantations, but to a greater extent in butterflies (54% reduction) than in ants (25% reduction). Butterfly diversity increased in plantations with increasing proximity to forest primarily due to spillover of ‘vagrant’ forest species (whose larval host plants do not occur in plantations), although richness of species that could potentially breed in plantations also increased near to forest. By contrast, ants showed no spillover effects and were less sensitive to land‐use changes, with much higher levels of similarity in species assemblages across habitats than for butterflies. Our results for butterflies suggest that despite the negative impacts of plantations on diversity, proximity to forest could improve diversity in adjacent plantations for some taxa. Spillover of forest species implies that retaining forest areas within plantations may be important for facilitating dispersal of some species through the landscape.