Epidemiology and clinical relevance of Pneumocystis jirovecii Frenkel, 1976 dihydropteroate synthase gene mutations

A review was conducted to examine the published works that studied the prevalence of Pneumocystis jirovecii dihydropteroate synthase (DHPS) mutations in patients with P. jirovecii pneumonia (PcP), in develop and developing countries, and that focused the problem of the possible association of these mutations with exposure to sulpha or sulphone drugs and their influence in the PcP outcome. Studies conducted in United States of America presented higher P. jirovecii mutations rates, in comparison with European countries, and in developing countries, lower rates of DHPS mutations were reported, due to limited use of sulpha drugs. A significant association was reported between the use of sulpha or sulphone agents for PcP prophylaxis in HIV-infected patients and the presence of DHPS mutations. However these mutations were also detected in PcP patients who were not currently receiving sulpha or sulphone agents. The outcome and mortality of HIV-infected patients with PcP harbouring DHPS gene mutations were related primarily to the underlying severity of illness and the initial severity of PcP, more than to the presence of mutations.     

Nitrification and ammonia volatilisation losses from urea and dicyandiamide-treated urea in a sandy loam soil

Summary Nitrification and ammonia volatilisation losses from urea and dicyandiamide (DCD)-treated urea were studied in a sandy loam soil. Laboratory experiments indicated that 20 ppm (of soil) DCD effectively inhibited nitrification of urea over sixty days. If the urea was treated with DCD (20 ppm), ammonia emission from the soil was extended over 105 days; with urea alone, it was negligible after 15 days. A field study indicated that DCD treatment increased volatilisation losses of ammonia tremondously if urea was applied to the soil surface; these losses were minimised if the urea was placed at 5 cm depth. It would seem that nitrification inhibitors must be combined with a placement technique.     

Plasmodium vivax dihydrofolate reductase as a target of sulpha drugs

Sulpha drugs act as competitive inhibitors of p-amino benzoic acid, an intermediate in the de novo folate pathway. Dihydropteroate synthase condenses sulpha drugs into sulpha-dihydropteroate (sulpha-DHP), which competes with dihydrofolate, the dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) substrate. This designates DHFR as a possible target of sulpha-DHP. We suggest here that Plasmodium vivax DHFR is indeed the in vivo target of sulpha drugs. The wild-type DHFR expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae leads to cell growth inhibition, while sensitivity to the drug is exacerbated in the mutants. Contrary to what is observed with sulphanilamide, methotrexate is less effective on P. vivax-DHFR mutants than on wild-type mutant.     

Neem (Azadirachta indica) seed kernel powder retards urease and nitrification activities in different soils at contrasting moisture and temperature regimes

A laboratory experiment was conducted to examine the potentiality of a natural resource neem (Azadirachta indica) seed kernel powder (NSKP) to reduce the urease and nitrification activities in different soils (viz., normal, acid, and sodic) at contrasting moisture (1:1 soil to water and field capacity) and temperature regimes (10 degrees C and 37 degrees C). Results have revealed that application of NSKP with urea did not exhibit any urease inhibitory property in normal and sodic soils, but in acid soil it had maintained higher concentration of urea than the urea alone treated samples for two weeks after application. At 37 degrees C and under field capacity moisture level, urea hydrolysis was more rapid than at 10 degrees C and under waterlogged (1:1) conditions. The NSKP has showed variable effects (4-28%) to inhibit nitrification during 7-21 days after application, depending upon the soil types, temperature and moisture regimes. The nitrification activity was significantly low in acid soil followed by normal and sodic soils. The present study suggests that NSKP has the potential to retard the urease activity in acid soil, and nitrification in all the soils, and thus it may be used along with urea for the better use of applied -N.     

Nitrogen leaching losses from conventional and new nitrogenous fertilizers in low-land rice culture

Summary A pot-culture experiment was conducted to assess the leaching losses of N from the conventional and new nitrogen fertilizers under low-land rice culture. Leaching losses of N were generally less than 20% of applied N with sources other than sodium nitrate and these could be reduced by blending urea with nitrification inhibitor N-Serve or coating withneem cake or by using urea super granules or slow-release N fertilizer sulphur coated urea. These new nitrogen fertilizers were more effective than urea for rice.     

Medicinal and aromatic plant materials as nitrification inhibitors for augmenting yield and nitrogen uptake of Japanese mint (Mentha arvensis L. Var. Piperascens)

Pot experiments were conducted to evaluate the relative performance of medicinal and aromatic plant materials and dicyandiamide (DCD) as nitrification inhibitors to regulate transformation of N from urea. Their effect on the efficiencies of use of N by Japanese mint (Mentha arvensis cv. Hy 77) was tested. Urea was coated with these materials viz., Mentha spicata, Artemisia annua or DCD at the rate of 5% (w/w) of fertilizer urea using an appropriate coating technique. Nimin (tetranortriterpenoids, an ethanol extract of neem (Azadirachta indica Juss) coating was done at the rate of 1% w/w of urea. Fertilizer nitrogen was applied at 100 and 200 mg kg(-1) soil. These natural coating materials significantly increased the herb and essential oil yields of the crop at both rates of fertilizer nitrogen compared to urea alone and were found to be as effective as DCD in retarding NO3- formation in soil. Herb yield increased by 6-81% when compared to uncoated urea. The increase in essential oil yield ranged between 3% and 68% due to coating. The effectiveness of the nitrification-inhibitor--coated urea, however, varied with the soils used and the rate of fertilizer nitrogen applied. The results suggest that the natural products could be potential nitrification inhibitors for increasing fertilizer N use efficiency.     

Inhibiting nitrification and increasing yield of barley by band placement of thiourea with fall-applied urea

Incubation and field experiments were conducted on the influence of thiourea in inhibiting nitrification of urea N, and subsequently on reducing over-winter losses of fallapplied N. Under incubation, most of the added urea placed in bands was nitritified within five or six weeks. However, thiourea when pelleted with urea (21 urea to thiourea by weight) reduced the amount of nitrification to less than one-half during the same period.In two uncropped field experiments in an early dry fall, the application of pelleted urea+thiourea (21) in bands resulted in almost complete inhibition of nitrification of urea for four weeks. In two other uncropped field experiments begun in June with the same fertilizer in bands, half or less of applied N appeared as nitrate after eight weeks. In 10 cropped field experiments with 56 kg N ha^–1, urea+thiourea placed in bands depressed nitrification of fall-applied urea over the winter. By early May, the urea mixed into the soil in the previous fall was nearly all nitrified, while only one-half of the banded urea+thiourea was nitrified. The loss of mineral N by early May was 38% with urea mixed into the soil, but only 18% with bands of urea+thiourea.The 10 sites were cropped to spring barley. The increase in yield of grain or the increase in %N uptake from fertilier N was approximately only one-half as much with fall-applied urea mixed into the soil as compared to spring-applied urea added in the same way. Specifically, fall-applied mixed urea produced 930 kg ha^–1 less grain yield and 32% less N uptake from fertilizer N than did mixed urea in spring. On fall-application there was some benefit from banding of urea or with mixing urea+thiourea pellets into the soil, but the banding of urea+thiourea pellets gave more benefit. Among the fall applications, banded urea+thiourea pellets produced 670 kg ha^–1 more grain yield and 26% more N uptake in grain from fertilizer N than did urea mixed into the soil.     

脲酶/硝化抑制剂在黑土和褐土中对尿素氮转化的调控效果

本试验研究脲酶/硝化抑制剂不同组合在黑土和褐土中对尿素水解和硝化作用的调控效果,旨在筛选出适合东北黑土、褐土的高效抑制剂组合。采用室内恒温、恒湿培养试验,以不施氮肥(CK)和施用普通尿素肥料(U)为对照,研究分别添加脲酶抑制剂N-丁基硫代磷酰三胺(NBPT)及其与硝化抑制剂双氰胺(DCD)、3,4-二甲基吡唑磷酸盐(DMPP)、2-氯-6(三氯甲基)-吡啶(CP)、2-氨基-4-氯-6-甲基嘧啶(AM)、3-甲基吡唑(MP)组合制成的6种高效稳定性尿素在黑土和褐土中的尿素水解和氨氧化特征。在培养125 d内分别取土壤样品15次,通过测定2种土壤中尿素态氮、铵态氮和硝态氮含量,及氨氧化作用强度,计算硝化抑制率,确定最适合2种土壤的抑制剂或组合。结果表明: 尿素在黑土和褐土中水解时间约7 d,添加NBPT以及其与不同硝化抑制剂组合均能将尿素水解时间延长21 d以上。与U处理相比,添加抑制剂可显著增加土壤NH₄⁺-N含量,降低NO₃^--N生成量,维持土壤中高NH₄⁺-N含量的时间更久。黑土中,添加硝化抑制剂的处理均能显著抑制土壤硝化作用,有效硝化抑制时间超过125 d;DMPP、CP与NBPT配施使黑土NH₄⁺-N含量提高1.6～1.8倍,培养125 d时其硝化抑制率分别为47.9%和24.1%。褐土中,U处理培养80 d左右基本完成硝化过程,而添加硝化抑制剂使硝化过程延长至少30 d;DCD、DMPP与NBPT配施使土壤NH₄⁺-N含量提高2.1～3.4倍,培养125 d时其硝化抑制率分别为25.3%和23.2%。因此,尿素与NBPT+DMPP和NBPT+DCD制成的高效稳定性尿素分别在黑土和褐土中施用效果最好,其次分别是NBPT+CP和NBPT+DMPP。     

Control of urea hydrolysis and nitrification in soil by chemicals—Prospects and problems

Summary A review is made of the recent work to assess the prospects of regulating urea hydrolysis and nitrification processes in soils by employing chemicals that can retard urea hydrolysis and nitrification. The possible benefits from control of nitrogen transformations in terms of conserving and enhancing fertilizer nitrogen efficiency for crop production and the problems associated with their use with regard to N metabolism of plants have also been discussed with examples. Prospects of using cheap and effective indigenous materials and chemicals for control of urea hydrolysis and nitrification under specific soil situations appear eminent in improving the fertilizer nitrogen efficiency. Urease inhibitors may be helpful in reducing problems associated with ammonia volatilization if this is not offset by leaching of urea. On the other hand retardation of nitrification appears useful in reducing losses that accompany nitrification due to leaching and denitrification, and with the plants that metabolize equally well with relatively higher amounts of NH₄–N may be more effective in improving the utilization of fertilizer N under these situations.     

Control of nitrification of fertilizer nitrogen: Effect of inhibitors,banding and nesting

Laboratory incubation and field experiments were conducted to evaluate thiourea, ATC (4-amino-1, 2, 4 triazole hydrochloride) and N-Serve 24 E (2-chloro-6-trichloromethyl-pyridine) as inhibitors of nitrification of fertilizer N. In the incubation experiment, most of the added aqueous NH₃ or urea was nitrified at 14 days on both soils, but addition of the inhibitors to fertilizer N decreased the conversion of NH₄−N to NO₃−N markedly. There was less nitrification for ATC and thiourea but not for N-Serve 24 E when the fertilizers and the inhibitors were placed at a point as opposed to when mixed into soil. After 28 days, ATC and N-Serve 24 E were more effective in inhibiting nitrification than thiourea. ATC and N-Serve 24 E also inhibited release of mineral N (NH₄−N+NO₃−N) from native soil N. In the uncropped field experiment, which received N fertilizers in the fall, nitrification of fall-applied N placed in the 15-cm bands was almost complete by early May in the Malmo soil, but not in the Breton soil. When ATC or thiourea had been applied with urea, nitrification of fall-applied N was depressed by May and the recovery of applied N as NH₄−N was greater with increasing band spacing to 60 cm or placing N fertilizer in nests (a method of application where urea prills were placed at a point in the soil in the center of 60×60 cm area). In late June, the percentage recovery of fall-applied N in soil as NH₄−N or mineral N increased with wide band spacing, or nest placement, or by adding ATC to fertilizer N on both soils. These results indicate that placing ammonium-based N fertilizers in widely-spaced bands or in nests with low rates of inhibitors slows nitrification enough to prevent much of the losses from fall-applied N. Scientific Paper No. 552, Lacombe Research Station, Research Branch, Agric, Can.     

The influence of mineral fertilizer combined with a nitrification inhibitor on microbial populations and activities in calcareous Uzbekistanian soil under cotton cultivation

Application of fertilizers combined with nitrification inhibitors affects soil microbial biomass and activity. The objective of this research was to determine the effects of fertilizer application combined with the nitrification inhibitor potassium oxalate (PO) on soil microbial population and activities in nitrogen-poor soil under cotton cultivation in Uzbekistan. Fertilizer treatments were N as urea, P as ammophos, and K as potassium chloride. The nitrification inhibitor PO was added to urea and ammophos at the rate of 2%. Three treatments--N200 P140 K60 (T1), N200 PO P140 K60 (T2), and N200 P140 PO K60 (T3) mg kg(-1) soil--were applied for this study. The control (C) was without fertilizer and PO. The populations of oligotrophic bacteria, ammonifying bacteria, nitrifying bacteria, denitrifying bacteria, mineral assimilating bacteria, oligonitrophilic bacteria, and bacteria group Azotobacter were determined by the most probable number method. The treatments T2 and T3 increased the number of oligonitrophilic bacteria and utilization mineral forms of nitrogen on the background of reducing number of ammonifying bacteria. T2 and T3 also decreased the number of nitrifying bacteria, denitrifying bacteria, and net nitrification. In conclusion, our experiments showed that PO combined with mineral fertilizer is one of the most promising compounds for inhibiting nitrification rate, which was reflected in the increased availability and efficiency of fertilizer nitrogen to the cotton plants. PO combined with mineral fertilizer has no negative effects on nitrogen-fixing bacteria Azotobacter and oligo-nitrophilic bacteria.     

硝化抑制剂DCD、 DMPP对褐土氮总矿化速率和硝化速率的影响

采用15N库稀释-原位培养法研究了硝化抑制剂DCD、DMPP对华北盐碱性褐土氮总矿化速率和硝化速率的影响.试验在山西省运城市种植玉米的盐碱性土壤上进行,设单施尿素、尿素+DCD、尿素+DMPP 3个处理.结果表明:施肥后2周,DCD、DMPP分别使氮总矿化速率和氮总硝化速率减少了25.5％、7.3％和60.3％、59.1％,DCD对氮总矿化速率的影响显著高于DMPP,两者对氮总硝化速率的影响无显著差异;而在施肥后7周,不同硝化抑制剂对氮总硝化速率的影响存在差异.施肥后2周,3个处理的土壤氮总矿化速率和硝化速率分别是施肥前的7.2 ～10.0倍和5.5 ～21.5倍;NH4+和NO3-消耗速率分别是施肥前的9.1 ～12.2倍和5.1 ～8.4倍,这是由氮肥对土壤的激发效应所致.硝化抑制剂使氮肥更多地以NH4+形式保持在土壤中,减少了NO3-的积累.土壤氮总矿化速率和总硝化速率受硝化抑制剂的抑制是N2O减排的主要原因.     

生物炭配施硝化/脲酶抑制剂对亚热带水稻土活性氮气体排放的影响

探究施用生物炭和脲酶抑制剂/硝化抑制剂对亚热带水稻土氮素硝化过程的调控作用、氨挥发和N₂O排放的温室效应潜能的影响,确定生物炭与硝化和脲酶抑制剂的最佳组合,可为削减施用氮肥带来的活性氮气体排放对环境的负面风险提供理论依据。本研究采用室内好气培养试验方式,以单施尿素(N)为对照,设置7个试验处理[尿素+生物炭(NB),尿素+硝化抑制剂(N+NI),尿素+脲酶抑制剂(N+UI),尿素+硝化抑制剂+脲酶抑制剂(N+NIUI),尿素+硝化抑制剂+生物炭(NB+NI),尿素+脲酶抑制剂+生物炭(NB+UI),尿素+硝化抑制剂+脲酶抑制剂+生物炭(NB+NIUI)],观测生物炭与脲酶抑制剂(NBPT)/硝化抑制剂(DMPP)配施下土壤无机氮含量、N₂O排放及氨挥发的变化动态。结果表明: 1)培养期间,与N处理(5.11 mg N·kg^-1·d^-1)相比,NB处理的土壤硝化速率常数显著增加33.9%,N+NI处理显著降低22.9%;NB处理显著提高了氨氧化细菌(AOB)丰度,增幅达56.0%。2)与N处理相比,N+NI和NB+NI处理的NH₃累积排放量均显著增加约49%;N+UI处理降低了NH₃累积损失量,NB+UI处理抑制效果更明显。3)各处理的N₂O排放速率高峰均出现在施肥后前10 d;NB处理的N₂O排放高峰出现最早,N处理排放速率最高(5.87 μg·kg^-1·h^-1);硝化抑制剂与脲酶抑制剂配施减少土壤N₂O排放的效果最佳。综合计算各处理直接N₂O和间接N₂O(NH₃)排放产生的温室效应潜能(GWP)发现,N+NI和NB+NI处理较N处理分别增加了34.8%和40.9%,而NB和NB+UI处理的GWP显著降低了45.9%和60.5%。因此,生物炭与脲酶抑制剂配施对降低土壤活性氮气体排放所产生的温室效应潜能效果最佳。     

硝化抑制剂DCD、DMPP对褐土氮总矿化速率和硝化速率的影响

采用¹⁵N库稀释-原位培养法研究了硝化抑制剂DCD、DMPP对华北盐碱性褐土氮总矿化速率和硝化速率的影响.试验在山西省运城市种植玉米的盐碱性土壤上进行,设单施尿素、尿素+DCD、尿素+DMPP 3个处理.结果表明：施肥后2周,DCD、DMPP分别使氮总矿化速率和氮总硝化速率减少了25.5%、7.3%和60.3%、59.1%,DCD对氮总矿化速率的影响显著高于DMPP,两者对氮总硝化速率的影响无显著差异;而在施肥后7周,不同硝化抑制剂对氮总硝化速率的影响存在差异.施肥后2周,3个处理的土壤氮总矿化速率和硝化速率分别是施肥前的7.2～10.0倍和5.5～21.5倍;NH₄⁺和NO₃^-消耗速率分别是施肥前的9.1～12.2倍和5.1～8.4倍,这是由氮肥对土壤的激发效应所致.硝化抑制剂使氮肥更多地以NH₄⁺形式保持在土壤中,减少了NO₃^-的积累.土壤氮总矿化速率和总硝化速率受硝化抑制剂的抑制是N₂O减排的主要原因.     

Nitrification inhibitors

Summary The effects of furano compounds, furfural (furfuraldehyde) and furfuryl alcohol (5, 10, 20 and 30% of N applied) on nitrification of ammonium sulfate and urea N were studied in a sandy clay loam in laboratory. Both furfural and furfuryl alcohol significantly retarded the nitrification rates of both the fertilizers by inhibiting the conversion of NH₄ ⁺ to NO₂ ^- without affecting the oxidation of NO₂ ^- to NO₃ ^--N. 10, 20 and 30% concentrations of the compounds were effective up to 75 days with ammonium sulfate but more or less up to 45 days with urea. re]19760322     

Inhibition of mineralization of urea nitrogen in soil

Summary The effects of anthraquinones and some other quinonoid and phenolic compounds on mineralization of urea N in soils were studied by estimating the influence on urease activity and nitrification. Anthraquinones did not affect the mineralization of urea N but 1,4-naphthoquinone; 2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone; 2–3-dichlorohydroquinone; 4,6-di-tert.butyl-o-benzoquinone; 4-tert.butylpyrocatechol and 4,6-di-tert.butylpyrocatechol inhibited urease activity and nitrification. The hydrolysis of urea (100 ppm) was not prevented by partial reduction in urease activity. The effective substances also inhibited dehydrogenase activity.     

The effect of intermittent flooding on the growth and yield of wetland rice and nitrogen-loss mechanism with surface applied and deep placed urea

Summary Wetland rice was cultivated in pots of puddled soil under continuous and intermittent flooding conditions. The soil was either fertilized with the surface application of prilled urea in three split doses or once with urea supergranules applied at different soil levels.The grain yield, fertilizer efficiency and percent nitrogen recovery by the grains were increased by deep placement of urea supergranules independent of the water regime. Grain yield was always lower with intermittent flooding, particularly when the plants were fertilized with the surface application of prilled urea.Nitrogen loss by ammonia volatilization, measured in a closed cuvette system, was reduced from 24% with the surface application of urea prills and 20% with surface application of urea supergranules to approximately 2% with deep placement of urea supergranules. Intermittent flooding created conditions which promoted additional nitrogen loss by nitrification and denitrification processes. The total nitrogen loss, measured in an open cuvette system, was about 38% with the surface application of urea supergranules, whereas this loss was reduced to 10% with deep placement of urea supergranules. Furthermore, deep placement of urea fertilizer reduced the nitrogen loss irrespective of water regime.     

Mineralisation of urea and urea derivatives in anaerobic soils

Summary The rates of mineralisation of urea and urea derivatives were studied in a laboratory anaerobic incubation experiment. Urea, urea phosphate and sulphur coated urea were hydrolysed rapidly and, even at the highest level of application, had disappeared in just over 8 days. The presence of the phosphate anion depressed pH in the early stages. Hydrolysis of the less soluble organic derivatives of urea, isobutylidine diurea, ureaform and glycoluril was very much slower and in the case of glycoluril a lag period of 8 to 16 days occurred before hydrolysis began.In the initial stages the system was anaerobic but between days 8 and 16 a change to partial aerobic conditions occurred. At this stage nitrification commenced and at day 16 nitrite was detected. Reduction of Fe(III) increased with time, reaching a maximum at day 32. More Fe(II) was produced in the presence of organic derivatives of urea than with the other fertilizers, possibly due to stabilisation by organic ligands. From day 16 nitrification, denitrification and reduction of Fe(III) proceeded together even through E_h values indicated that oxidation of Fe(II) would be expected. This did not occur until after day 32. Once nitrification began denitrification quickly followed so that for all six fertilisers, except at the highest level of application, virtually all the mineralised-N had been lost by denitrification at the end of the experiment.     

Comparison of Karanjin with other nitrification inhibitors for retardation of nitrification of urea N in soil

Summary Comparative evaluation of Kranjin and three patented nitrification inhibitors for retardation of nitrification of urea in a sandy clay loam showed that the effectiveness of the compounds tested decreased in the order: Nitrapyrin>Karanjin>A.M.>dicyandiamide.     

Effect of trickle fertigation with three forms of nitrogen on soil pH,levels of extractable nutrients below the emitter and plant growth

The effects of application of nitrogen as calcium nitrate, urea or ammonium sulphate at two rates through the trickle irrigation system on pH and nutrient status of the wetted volume of soil below the emitters and on growth and nutrition of courgette (zucchini) plants (Cucurbita pepo L.) was investigated. Soil acidification, caused by nitrification, occurred to a large extent in the volume of soil immediately below the emitters in the urea and ammonium sulphate treatments. Acidification was greater at the high rate of N addition and more pronounced with ammonium sulphate than urea. A significant amount of applied urea appeared to move through the soil as urea and consequently, at the same rate of N addition, levels of ammonium were lower directly below the emitter and those of nitrate were higher further away from the emitters for the urea than ammonium sulphate treatments. Soil acidification below the emitters resulted in significant decreases in levels of exchangeable Ca, Mg and K and increases in levels of exchangeable Al, EDTA-extractable Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu and bicarbonate-extractable P. Vegetative growth and harvestable yields of courgettes were increased by both irrigation and nitrogen applications. Vegetative growth was generally greater at the low rate of N addition than at the high one and generally followed the order calcium nitrate > urea > ammonium sulphate. However, fruit yields followed the order urea > ammonium sulphate > calcium nitrate and were larger at the high rate of N for urea and ammonium sulphate treatments and unaffected by rate for the calcium nitrate treatments. It is suggested that with fertigation, the form of applied N can have significant physiological effects of plant growth and yields because N may be applied into the root zone on numerous occasions during the growing season.