Stable Plastid Transformation in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nicotiana benthamiana</Emphasis>

Plastids from Nicotiana benthamiana were transformed with the vector for dicistronic expression of two genes—aminoglycoside 3'-adenyltransferase (aadA) and green fluorescent protein (gfp)—in the plastids of Nicotiana tabacum. Transplastomic shoots exhibited green fluorescence under UV light. Transformation efficiencies were similar between species. Although the border sequence (trnI and trnA) for homologous recombination to transform the plastid genome of N. benthamiana was identical to that sequence of N. tabacum, the exception was a 9-bp addition in the intron of trnI. This indicated that the N. tabacum sequence used as a border region for recombination was sufficient to insert the foreign gene into the target site between the trnI and trnA of N. benthamiana with similar efficiency. Southern blot analysis detected the presence of aadA and gfp between trnI and trnA in the plastid genome of N. benthamiana. Northern and western blot analyses revealed high expression of gfp in the plastids from petals and leaves. Our results suggest that the plastid transformation system established here is applicable to investigations of the interactions between plastid and nucleus in N. benthamiana.     

Enhanced <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nicotiana benthamiana</Emphasis> immune responses caused by heterologous plant genes from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinellia ternata</Emphasis>

Background

Pinellia ternata is a Chinese traditional medicinal herb, used to cure diseases including insomnia, eclampsia and cervical carcinoma, for hundreds of years. Non-self-recognition in multicellular organisms can initiate the innate immunity to avoid the invasion of pathogens. A design for pathogen independent, heterosis based, fresh resistance can be generated in F₁ hybrid was proposed.

Results

By library functional screening, we found that P. ternata genes, named as ptHR375 and ptHR941, were identified with the potential to trigger a hypersensitive response in Nicotiana benthamiana. Significant induction of ROS and Callose deposition in N. benthamiana leaves along with activation of pathogenesis-related genes viz.; PR-1a, PR-5, PDF1.2, NPR1, PAL, RBOHB and ERF1 and antioxidant enzymes was observed. After transformation into N. benthamiana, expression of pathogenesis related genes was significantly up-regulated to generate high level of resistance against Phytophthora capsici without affecting the normal seed germination and morphological characters of the transformed N. benthamiana. UPLC-QTOF-MS analysis of ptHR375 transformed N. benthamiana revealed the induction of Oxytetracycline, Cuelure, Allantoin, Diethylstilbestrol and 1,2-Benzisothiazol-3(2H)-one as bioactive compounds. Here we also proved that F₁ hybrids, produced by crossing of the ptHR375 and ptHR941 transformed and non-transformed N. benthamiana, show significant high levels of PR-gene expressions and pathogen resistance.

Conclusions

Heterologous plant genes can activate disease resistance in another plant species and furthermore, by generating F₁ hybrids, fresh pathogen independent plant immunity can be obtained. It is also concluded that ptHR375 and ptHR941 play their role in SA and JA/ET defense pathways to activate the resistance against invading pathogens.

     

Overexpression of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Citrus junos</Emphasis> mitochondrial citrate synthase gene in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nicotiana benthamiana</Emphasis> confers aluminum tolerance

Aluminum (Al) toxicity is one of the major factors that limit plant growth in acid soils. Al-induced release of organic acids into rhizosphere from the root apex has been identified as a major Al-tolerance mechanism in many plant species. In this study, Al tolerance of Yuzu (Citrus Junos Sieb. ex Tanaka) was tested on the basis of root elongation and the results demonstrated that Yuzu was Al tolerant compared with other plant species. Exposure to Al triggered the exudation of citrate from the Yuzu root. Thus, the mechanism of Al tolerance in Yuzu involved an Al-inducible increase in citrate release. Aluminum also elicited an increase of citrate content and increased the expression level of mitochondrial citrate synthase (CjCS) gene and enzyme activity in Yuzu. The CjCS gene was cloned from Yuzu and overexpressed in Nicotiana benthamiana using Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated methods. Increased expression level of the CjCS gene and enhanced enzyme activity were observed in transgenic plants compared with the wild-type plants. Root growth experiments showed that transgenic plants have enhanced levels of Al tolerance. The transgenic Nicotiana plants showed increased levels of citrate in roots compared to wild-type plants. The exudation of citrate from roots of the transgenic plants significantly increased when exposed to Al. The results with transgenic plants suggest that overexpression of mitochondrial CS can be a useful tool to achieve Al tolerance.     

Heterologous expression of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">msp2 gene</Emphasis> from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Marasmius scorodonius</Emphasis>

For the heterologous expression of the msp2 gene from the edible mushroom Marasmius scorodonius in Escherichia coli the cDNA encoding the extracellular Msp2 peroxidase was cloned into the pBAD III expression plasmid. Expression of the protein with or without signal peptide was investigated in E. coli strains TOP10 and LMG194. Different PCR products were amplified for expression of the native target protein or a protein with a signal peptide. Omitting the native stop codon and adding six His-residues resulted in a fusion protein amenable to immune detection and purification by immobilised metal affinity chromatography. In E. coli the recombinant protein was produced in high yield as insoluble inclusion bodies. The influence of different parameters on MsP2 refolding was investigated. Active enzyme was obtained by glutathione-mediated oxidation in a medium containing urea, Ca²⁺, and hemin.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Ty</Emphasis>1<Emphasis Type="Italic">/copia</Emphasis>- and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ty</Emphasis>3<Emphasis Type="Italic">/gypsy</Emphasis>-like DNA sequences in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Helianthus </Emphasis>species

Two repeated DNA sequences isolated from a partial genomic DNA library of Helianthus annuus, p HaS13 and p HaS211, were shown to represent portions of the int gene of a Ty3 /gypsy retroelement and of the RNase-Hgene of a Ty1 /copia retroelement, respectively. Southern blotting patterns obtained by hybridizing the two probes to BglII- or DraI-digested genomic DNA from different Helianthus species showed p HaS13 and p HaS211 were parts of dispersed repeats at least 8 and 7 kb in length, respectively, that were conserved in all species studied. Comparable hybridization patterns were obtained in all species with p HaS13. By contrast, the patterns obtained by hybridizing p HaS211 clearly differentiated annual species from perennials. The frequencies of p HaS13- and p HaS211-related sequences in different species were 4.3x10(4)-1.3x10(5) copies and 9.9x10(2)-8.1x10(3) copies per picogram of DNA, respectively. The frequency of p HaS13-related sequences varied widely within annual species, while no significant difference was observed among perennial species. Conversely, the frequency variation of p HaS211-related sequences was as large within annual species as within perennials. Sequences of both families were found to be dispersed along the length of all chromosomes in all species studied. However, Ty3 /gypsy-like sequences were localized preferentially at the centromeric regions, whereas Ty1/ copia-like sequences were less represented or absent around the centromeres and plentiful at the chromosome ends. These findings suggest that the two sequence families played a role in Helianthusgenome evolution and species divergence, evolved independently in the same genomic backgrounds and in annual or perennial species, and acquired different possible functions in the host genomes.     

Electrostatic attraction between cytochrome <Emphasis Type="Italic">bc</Emphasis><Subscript>1</Subscript> and cytochrome <Emphasis Type="Italic">c</Emphasis> affects kinetics of cytochrome <Emphasis Type="Italic">c</Emphasis> reduction

The kinetics of the ubiquinol-cytochrome c reductase reaction was examined using membrane fragments and purified bc(1) complexes derived from a wild-type (WT) and a newly constructed mutant (MUT) strains of Paracoccus denitrificans. The cytochrome c(1) of the WT samples possessed an additional stretch of acidic amino acids, which was lacking in the mutant. The reaction was followed with positively charged mitochondrial and negatively charged bacterial cytochromes c, and specific activities, apparent k(cat) values, and first-order rate constant values were compared. These values were distinctly lower for the MUT fractions using mitochondrial cytochrome c but differed only slightly with the bacterial species. The MUT preparations were less sensitive to changes of ionic strength of the reaction media and showed pure first-order kinetics with both samples of cytochrome c. The reaction of the WT enzyme was first order only with bacterial cytochrome c but proceeded with a non-linear profile with mitochondrial cytochrome c. The analysis of the reaction pattern revealed a rapid onset of the reaction with a successively declining rate. Experiments performed in the absence of an electron donor indicated that electrostatic attraction could directly participate in cytochrome c reduction.     

Revision of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Serrulati</Emphasis> species of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Penstemon</Emphasis> section <Emphasis Type="Italic">Saccanthera</Emphasis> subsection <Emphasis Type="Italic">Serrulati</Emphasis>

A revision of Penstemon sect. Saccanthera subsect. Serrulati includes a new species (P. salmonensis), a new variety (P. triphyllus var. infernalis), and the elevation of a subspecies to species (P. curtiflorus), bringing the total number of species to eight, which are keyed and described, complete with nomenclature and type citations.     

Ectopic expression of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Capsicum</Emphasis>-specific cell wall protein <Emphasis Type="Italic">Capsicum annuum</Emphasis> senescence-delaying 1 (CaSD1) delays senescence and induces trichome formation in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nicotiana benthamiana</Emphasis>

Secreted proteins are known to have multiple roles in plant development, metabolism, and stress response. In a previous study to understand the roles of secreted proteins, Capsicum annuum secreted proteins (CaS) were isolated by yeast secretion trap. Among the secreted proteins, we further characterized Capsicum annuum senescence-delaying 1 (CaSD1), a gene encoding a novel secreted protein that is present only in the genus Capsicum. The deduced CaSD1 contains multiple repeats of the amino acid sequence KPPIHNHKPTDYDRS. Interestingly, the number of repeats varied among cultivars and species in the Capsicum genus. CaSD1 is constitutively expressed in roots, and Agrobacterium-mediated transient overexpression of CaSD1 in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves resulted in delayed senescence with a dramatically increased number of trichomes and enlarged epidermal cells. Furthermore, senescence- and cell division-related genes were differentially regulated by CaSD1-overexpressing plants. These observations imply that the pepper-specific cell wall protein CaSD1 plays roles in plant growth and development by regulating cell division and differentiation.     

Designing a whole-cell biotransformation system in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Escherichia coli</Emphasis> using cytochrome P450 from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Streptomyces peucetius</Emphasis>

A biotransformation system was designed to co-express CYP107P3 (CSP4), cytochrome P450, from Streptomyces peuceticus, along with CamA (putidaredoxin reductase) and CamB (putidaredoxin) from Pseudomonas putida, the necessary reducing equivalents, in a class I type electron-transfer system in E. coli BL21 (DE3). This was carried out using two plasmids with different selection markers and compatible origins of replication. The study results showed that this biotransformation system was able to mediate the O-dealkylation of 7-ethoxycumarin.     

Heterologous expression of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Vitreoscilla</Emphasis> haemoglobin in barley (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Hordeum vulgare</Emphasis>)

The vhb gene encoding Vitreoscilla haemoglobin (VHb) was transferred to barley with the aim of studying the role of oxygen availability in germination and growth. Previous findings indicate that VHb expression improves the efficiency of energy generation during oxygen-limited growth, and germination is known to be an energy demanding growth stage during which the embryos also suffer from oxygen deficiency. When subjected to oxygen deficiency, the roots of vhb-expressing barley plants showed a smaller increase in alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) activity than those of the control plants. This indicates that VHb plants experienced less severe oxygen deficiency than the control plants, possibly due to the ability of VHb to substitute ADH for recycling NADH and maintaining glycolysis. In contrast to previous findings, we found that constitutive vhb expression did not improve the germination rate of barley kernels in any of the conditions studied. In some cases, vhb expression even slowed down germination slightly. VHb production also appeared to restrict root formation in young seedlings. The adverse effects of VHb on germination and root growth may be related to its ability to scavenge nitric oxide (NO), an important signal molecule in both seed germination and root formation. Because NO has both cytotoxic and stimulating properties, the effect of vhb expression in plants may depend on the level and role of endogenous NO in the conditions studied. VHb production also affected the levels of endogenous barley haemoglobin, which may explain the relatively moderate effects of VHb in this study.     

In vivo effects of <Emphasis Type="Italic">NbSiR</Emphasis> silencing on chloroplast development in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nicotiana benthamiana</Emphasis>

Sulfite reductase (SiR) performs dual functions, acting as a sulfur assimilation enzyme and as a chloroplast (cp-) nucleoid binding protein. In this study, we examined the in vivo effects of SiR deficiency on chloroplast development in Nicotiana benthamiana. Virus-induced gene silencing of NbSiR resulted in leaf yellowing and growth retardation phenotypes, which were not rescued by cysteine supplementation. NbSiR:GFP fusion protein was targeted to chloroplasts and colocalized with cp-nucleoids. Recombinant full-length NbSiR protein and the C-terminal half of NbSiR possessed cp-DNA compaction activities in vitro, and expression of full-length NbSiR in E. coli caused condensation of genomic DNA. NbSiR silencing differentially affected expression of plastid-encoded genes, inhibiting expression of several genes more severely than others. In the later stages, depletion of NbSiR resulted in chloroplast ablation. In NbSiR-silenced plants, enlarged cp-nucleoids containing an increased amount of cp-DNA were observed in the middle of the abnormal chloroplasts, and the cp-DNAs were predominantly of subgenomic sizes based on pulse field gel electrophoresis. The abnormal chloroplasts developed prolamellar body-like cubic lipid structures in the light without accumulating NADPH:protochlorophyllide oxidoreductase proteins. Our results suggest that NbSiR plays a role in cp-nucleoid metabolism, plastid gene expression, and thylakoid membrane development.     

Phenolic compounds induced by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bemisia tabaci</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Trialeurodes vaporariorum</Emphasis> in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nicotiana tabacum</Emphasis> L. and their relationship with the salicylic acid signaling pathway

Changes in the levels of secondary compounds can trigger plant defenses. To identify phenolic compounds induced by Bemisia tabaci Middle East-Asia Minor 1 (MEAM1) in tobacco (Nicotiana tobacco L.), the content changes of 11 phenolic compounds in plants infested by B. tabaci MEAM1 or Trialeurodes vaporariorum were compared. The chlorogenic acid, catechin, caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, rutin, and ferulic acid contents in B. tabaci MEAM1-infested tobacco plants increased significantly, having temporal and spatial effects, compared with uninfested control and T. vaporariorum infested plants. The contents were 4.10, 2.84, 2.25, 3.81, 1.46, and 1.91 times higher, respectively, than those in the control. However, a T. vaporariorum nymphal infestation just caused smaller chlorogenic acid, catechin, caffeic acid, and rutin contents increase, which were 2.33, 2.13, 1.59, and 3.19 times higher, respectively, than those in the control. In B. tabaci MEAM1 third-instar nymph-infested plants, chlorogenic acid, catechin, caffeic acid, and rutin increased more significantly in systemic than in local leaves. Salicylate-deficient plants inhibited the induction of the content of 10 phenolic compounds, but not caffeic acid, after a B. tabaci MEAM1 nymphal infestation. Thus, the elevated levels of phenolic compounds induced by B. tabaci MEAM1 were correlated with the salicylic acid signaling pathway and induced the responses of defense-related phenolic compounds.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Galleria</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">mellonella</Emphasis> are Resistant to <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pneumocystis</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">murina</Emphasis> Infection

Studying Pneumocystis has proven to be a challenge from the perspective of propagating a significant amount of the pathogen in a facile manner. The study of several fungal pathogens has been aided by the use of invertebrate model hosts. Our efforts to infect the invertebrate larvae Galleria mellonella with Pneumocystis proved futile since P. murina neither caused disease nor was able to proliferate within G. mellonella. It did, however, show that the pathogen could be rapidly cleared from the host.     

Natively oxidized amino acid residues in the spinach cytochrome <Emphasis Type="Italic">b</Emphasis><Subscript><Emphasis Type="Italic">6</Emphasis></Subscript><Emphasis Type="Italic">f</Emphasis> complex

The cytochrome b ₆ f complex of oxygenic photosynthesis produces substantial levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS). It has been observed that the ROS production rate by b ₆ f is 10–20 fold higher than that observed for the analogous respiratory cytochrome bc₁ complex. The types of ROS produced (O₂^{??, 1}O₂, and, possibly, H₂O₂) and the site(s) of ROS production within the b ₆ f complex have been the subject of some debate. Proposed sources of ROS have included the heme b _p , PQ _p ^?? (possible sources for O₂^??), the Rieske iron–sulfur cluster (possible source of O₂^?? and/or ¹O₂), Chl a (possible source of ¹O₂), and heme c _n (possible source of O₂^?? and/or H₂O₂). Our working hypothesis is that amino acid residues proximal to the ROS production sites will be more susceptible to oxidative modification than distant residues. In the current study, we have identified natively oxidized amino acid residues in the subunits of the spinach cytochrome b ₆ f complex. The oxidized residues were identified by tandem mass spectrometry using the MassMatrix Program. Our results indicate that numerous residues, principally localized near p-side cofactors and Chl a, were oxidatively modified. We hypothesize that these sites are sources for ROS generation in the spinach cytochrome b ₆ f complex.     

Heterologous expression of leader-less <Emphasis Type="Italic">pga</Emphasis> gene in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pichia pastoris</Emphasis>: intracellular production of prokaryotic enzyme

Background  

Penicillin G acylase of Escherichia coli (PGA_Ec) is a commercially valuable enzyme for which efficient bacterial expression systems have been developed. The enzyme is used as a catalyst for the hydrolytic production of β-lactam nuclei or for the synthesis of semi-synthetic penicillins such as ampicillin, amoxicillin and cephalexin. To become a mature, periplasmic enzyme, the inactive prepropeptide of PGA has to undergo complex processing that begins in the cytoplasm (autocatalytic cleavage), continues at crossing the cytoplasmic membrane (signal sequence removing), and it is completed in the periplasm. Since there are reports on impressive cytosolic expression of bacterial proteins in Pichia, we have cloned the leader-less gene encoding PGA_Ec in this host and studied yeast production capacity and enzyme authenticity.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Agrobacterium</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">tumefaciens</Emphasis>-mediated transformation of callus cells of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Crataegus</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">aronia</Emphasis>

A genetic transformation system has been developed for callus cells of Crataegus aronia using Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Callus culture was established from internodal stem segments incubated on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 5 mg l⁻¹ Indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) and 0.5 mg l⁻¹ 6-benzyladenine (BA). In order to optimize the callus culture system with respect to callus growth and coloration, different types and concentrations of plant growth regulators were tested. Results indicated that the best average fresh weight of red colored callus was obtained on MS medium supplemented with 2 mg l⁻¹ 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 1.5 mg l⁻¹ kinetin (Kin) (callus maintenance medium). Callus cells were co-cultivated with Agrobacterium harboring the binary plasmid pCAMBIA1302 carrying the mgfp5 and hygromycin phosphotransferase (hptII) genes conferring green fluorescent protein (GFP) activity and hygromycin resistance, respectively. Putative transgenic calli were obtained 4 weeks after incubation of the co-cultivated explants onto maintenance medium supplemented with 50 mg l⁻¹ hygromycin. Molecular analysis confirmed the integration of the transgenes in transformed callus. To our knowledge, this is the first time to report an Agrobacterium-mediated transformation system in Crataegus aronia.