Atomic force microscopy of animal cells: Advances and prospects

We review the advances of the method of atomic force microscopy (AFM) for investigating the animal cells and analyze its development, paying much attention to studies of living cells. We consider the specific features and tasks of AFM, and a number of special AFM-based techniques. We discuss the choice of probe geometry for studies of animal cells, determination of cell adhesion on substrate, mapping of the cell surface using chemically modified cantilevers, and analysis of the distribution of molecular components inside the cell with the use of micro- and nanosurgical approaches, as well as combining AFM with optical and laser scanning confocal microscopy, and the possible applications of AFM in biotechnology and medicine.     

Atomic force microscopy: A powerful molecular toolkit in nanoproteomics

Analysing microbial cell surface proteins is a challenging task in current microbial proteomic research, which has major implications for drug design, vaccine development, and microbial monitoring. In this context, atomic force microscopy (AFM) has recently emerged has a powerful characterization platform, providing valuable insights into the surface proteome of microbial cells. The aim of this article is to show how advanced AFM techniques, that all have in common functionalization of the AFM tip with specific molecules, can be used to answer pertinent questions related to surface‐associated proteins, such as what is their spatial arrangement on the cell surface, and what are the forces driving their interaction with the environment?     

Biomolecular interactions measured by atomic force microscopy

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is nowadays frequently applied to determine interaction forces between biological molecules. Starting with the detection of the first discrete unbinding forces between ligands and receptors by AFM only several years ago, measurements have become more and more quantitative. At the same time, theories have been developed to describe and understand the dynamics of the unbinding process and experimental techniques have been refined to verify this theory. In addition, the detection of molecular recognition forces has been exploited to map and image the location of binding sites. In this review we discuss the important contributions that have led to the development of this field. In addition, we emphasize the potential of chemically well-defined surface modification techniques to further improve reproducible measurements by AFM. This increased reproducibility will pave the way for a better understanding of molecular interactions in cell biology.     

Single-molecule recognition force spectroscopy of transmembrane transporters on living cells

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) has proven to be a powerful tool in biological sciences. Its particular advantage over other high-resolution methods commonly used is that biomolecules can be investigated not only under physiological conditions but also while they perform their biological functions. Single-molecule force spectroscopy with AFM tip-modification techniques can provide insight into intermolecular forces between individual ligand-receptor pairs of biological systems. Here we present protocols for force spectroscopy of living cells, including cell sample preparation, tip chemistry, step-by-step AFM imaging, force spectroscopy and data analysis. We also delineate critical steps and describe limitations that we have experienced. The entire protocol can be completed in 12 h. The model studies discussed here demonstrate the power of AFM for studying transmembrane transporters at the single-molecule level.     

Use of Atomic Force Microscopy and Transmission Electron Microscopy for Correlative Studies of Bacterial Capsules

Bacteria can possess an outermost assembly of polysaccharide molecules, a capsule, which is attached to their cell wall. We have used two complementary, high-resolution microscopy techniques, atomic force microscopy (AFM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), to study bacterial capsules of four different gram-negative bacterial strains: Escherichia coli K30, Pseudomonas aeruginosa FRD1, Shewanella oneidensis MR-4, and Geobacter sulfurreducens PCA. TEM analysis of bacterial cells using different preparative techniques (whole-cell mounts, conventional embeddings, and freeze-substitution) revealed capsules for some but not all of the strains. In contrast, the use of AFM allowed the unambiguous identification of the presence of capsules on all strains used in the present study, including those that were shown by TEM to be not encapsulated. In addition, the use of AFM phase imaging allowed the visualization of the bacterial cell within the capsule, with a depth sensitivity that decreased with increasing tapping frequency.     

Comparison of atomic force microscopy interaction forces between bacteria and silicon nitride substrata for three commonly used immobilization methods

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) has emerged as a powerful technique for mapping the surface morphology of biological specimens, including bacterial cells. Besides creating topographic images, AFM enables us to probe both physicochemical and mechanical properties of bacterial cell surfaces on a nanometer scale. For AFM, bacterial cells need to be firmly anchored to a substratum surface in order to withstand the friction forces from the silicon nitride tip. Different strategies for the immobilization of bacteria have been described in the literature. This paper compares AFM interaction forces obtained between Klebsiella terrigena and silicon nitride for three commonly used immobilization methods, i.e., mechanical trapping of bacteria in membrane filters, physical adsorption of negatively charged bacteria to a positively charged surface, and glutaraldehyde fixation of bacteria to the tip of the microscope. We have shown that different sample preparation techniques give rise to dissimilar interaction forces. Indeed, the physical adsorption of bacterial cells on modified substrata may promote structural rearrangements in bacterial cell surface structures, while glutaraldehyde treatment was shown to induce physicochemical and mechanical changes on bacterial cell surface properties. In general, mechanical trapping of single bacterial cells in filters appears to be the most reliable method for immobilization.     

Atomic force microscopy-based cancer diagnosis by detecting cancer-specific biomolecules and cells

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) has recently attracted much attention due to its ability to analyze biomolecular interactions and to detect certain biomolecules, which play a crucial role in disease expression. Despite recent studies reporting AFM imaging for the analyses of biomolecules, the application of AFM-based cancer-specific biomolecule/cell detection has remained largely underexplored, especially for the early diagnosis of cancer. In this paper, we review the recent attempts, including our efforts, to analyze and detect cancer-specific biomolecules and cancer cells. We particularly focus on two AFM-based cancer diagnosis techniques: (i) AFM imaging-based biomolecular and cellular detection, (ii) AFM cantilever-based biomolecular sensing and cell analysis. It is shown that AFM-based biomolecular detection has been applied for not only early diagnosing cancer, by measuring the minute amount of cancer-specific proteins, but also monitoring of cancer progression, by correlating the amount of cancer-specific proteins with the progression of cancer. In addition, AFM-based cell imaging and detection have been employed for diagnosing cancer, by detecting cancerous cells in tissue, as well as understanding cancer progression, by characterizing the dynamics of cancer cells. This review, therefore, highlights AFM-based biomolecule/cell detection, which will pave the way for developing a fast and point-of-care diagnostic system for biomedical applications.     

Analyzing valve interstitial cell mechanics and geometry with spatial statistics

Understanding cell geometric and mechanical properties is crucial to understanding how cells sense and respond to their local environment. Moreover, changes to cell mechanical properties under varied micro-environmental conditions can both influence and indicate fundamental changes to cell behavior. Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) is a well established, powerful tool to capture geometric and mechanical properties of cells. We have previously demonstrated substantial functional and behavioral differences between aortic and pulmonary valve interstitial cells (VIC) using AFM and subsequent models of VIC mechanical response. In the present work, we extend these studies by demonstrating that to best interpret the spatially distributed AFM data, the use of spatial statistics is required. Spatial statistics includes formal techniques to analyze spatially distributed data, and has been used successfully in the analysis of geographic data. Thus, spatially mapped AFM studies of cell geometry and mechanics are analogous to more traditional forms of geospatial data. We are able to compare the spatial autocorrelation of stiffness in aortic and pulmonary valve interstitial cells, and more accurately capture cell geometry from height recordings. Specifically, we showed that pulmonary valve interstitial cells display higher levels of spatial autocorrelation of stiffness than aortic valve interstitial cells. This suggests that aortic VICs form different stress fiber structures than their pulmonary counterparts, in addition to being more highly expressed and stiffer on average. Thus, the addition of spatial statistics can contribute to our fundamental understanding of the differences between cell types. Moving forward, we anticipate that this work will be meaningful to enhance direct analysis of experimental data and for constructing high fidelity computational of VICs and other cell models.     

(Bio)fouling of Polymeric Membranes: Atomic Force Microscope Study

Atomic force microscopy (AFM), in conjunction with colloid probe, coated colloid probe and cell probe techniques, has been used to measure directly the adhesive force between a polystyrene sphere (diameter 11 μm), protein bovine serum albumin (BSA) and a yeast cell, and two different membranes. These were polymeric ultrafiltration membranes of similar MWCO (4000 Da) but of different materials (ES 404 and XP 117, PCI Membrane Systems Ltd (UK)). The colloid probe was created by immobilising a polystyrene sphere onto a tipless V‐shaped AFM cantilever. The coated probe was made by adsorbing BSA on a 5 μm silica colloid, while immobilising a single yeast cell on such a tipless cantilever created the cell probe. Measurements were made in 10^–2 M NaCl solution. It was found for polystyrene, protein and cell systems that the adhesive force at the ES 404 membrane was greater than that at the XP 117 membrane. The paper shows that the colloid probe, coated colloid probe and cell probe techniques can provide useful means of directly quantifying the adhesion of both inorganic and biological materials to membrane surfaces.     

Comparison of Atomic Force Microscopy Interaction Forces between Bacteria and Silicon Nitride Substrata for Three Commonly Used Immobilization Methods

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) has emerged as a powerful technique for mapping the surface morphology of biological specimens, including bacterial cells. Besides creating topographic images, AFM enables us to probe both physicochemical and mechanical properties of bacterial cell surfaces on a nanometer scale. For AFM, bacterial cells need to be firmly anchored to a substratum surface in order to withstand the friction forces from the silicon nitride tip. Different strategies for the immobilization of bacteria have been described in the literature. This paper compares AFM interaction forces obtained between Klebsiella terrigena and silicon nitride for three commonly used immobilization methods, i.e., mechanical trapping of bacteria in membrane filters, physical adsorption of negatively charged bacteria to a positively charged surface, and glutaraldehyde fixation of bacteria to the tip of the microscope. We have shown that different sample preparation techniques give rise to dissimilar interaction forces. Indeed, the physical adsorption of bacterial cells on modified substrata may promote structural rearrangements in bacterial cell surface structures, while glutaraldehyde treatment was shown to induce physicochemical and mechanical changes on bacterial cell surface properties. In general, mechanical trapping of single bacterial cells in filters appears to be the most reliable method for immobilization.     

Probing membrane proteins using atomic force microscopy

To gain insights into how biological molecules function, advanced technologies enabling imaging, sensing, and actuating single molecules are required. The atomic force microscope (AFM) would be one of novel potential tools for these tasks. In this study, techniques and efforts using AFM to probe biomolecules are introduced and reviewed. The state-of-art techniques for characterizing specific single receptor using the functionalized AFM tip are discussed. An example of studying the angiotensin II type 1 (AT1) receptors expressed in sensory neuronal cells by AFM with a functionalized tip is given. Perspectives for identifying and characterizing specific individual membrane proteins using AFM in living cells are provided. Given that many diseases have their roots at the molecular scale and are best understood as a malfunctioning biological nanomachines, the prospects of these unique techniques in basic biomedical research or in clinical practice are beyond our imagination.     

RAPID ALDOSTERONE-INDUCED CELL VOLUME INCREASE OF ENDOTHELIAL CELLS MEASURED BY THE ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPE

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a useful technique for imaging the surface of living cells in three dimensions. The authors applied AFM to obtain morphological information of individual cultured endothelial cells of bovine aorta under stationary and strain conditions and to simultaneously measure changes in cell volume in response to aldosterone. This mineralocorticoid hormone is known to have acute, non-genomic effects on intracellular pH, intracellular electrolytes and inositol-1,4,5-triphosphate production. In this study whether endothelial cells under tension change their volume in response to aldosterone was tested. Such changes were already shown in human leukocytes measured by Coulter counter. In contrast to leukocytes that are more or less spherical and live in suspension, endothelial cells exhibit a complex morphology and adhere to a substrate. Thus, measurements of discrete cell volume changes in endothelial cells under physiological condition is only feasible with more sophisticated techniques. By using AFM we could precisely measure the absolute cell volume of individual living endothelial cells. Before the addition of aldosterone the cell volume of mechanically stressed endothelial cells mimicking arterial blood pressure was 1827±172fl. Cell volume was found to increase by 28% 5min after hormone exposure. Twenty-five minutes later cell volume was back to normal despite the continuous presence of aldosterone in the medium. Amiloride, a blocker of the plasma membrane Na⁺/H⁺exchanger prevented the initial aldosterone-induced volume increase. Taken together, AFM disclosed a transient swelling of endothelial cells induced by the activation of an aldosterone sensitive plasma membrane Na⁺/H⁺exchanger.     

Direct probing by atomic force microscopy of the cell surface softness of a fibrillated and nonfibrillated oral streptococcal strain

In this paper, direct measurement by atomic force microscopy (AFM) of the cell surface softness of a fibrillated oral streptococcal strain Streptococcus salivarius HB and of a nonfibrillated strain S. salivarius HBC12 is presented, and the data interpretation is validated by comparison with results from independent techniques. Upon approach of the fibrillated strain in water, the AFM tip experienced a long-range repulsion force, starting at approximately 100 nm, attributed to the compression of the soft layer of fibrils present at the cell surface. In 0.1 M KCl, repulsion was only experienced when the tip was closer than approximately 10 nm, reflecting a stiffer cell surface due to collapse of the fibrillar mass. Force-distance curves indicated that the nonfibrillated strain, probed both in water and in 0.1 M KCl, was much stiffer than the fibrillated strain in water, and a repulsion force was experienced by the tip at close approach only (20 nm in water and 10 nm in 0.1 M KCl). Differences in cell surface softness were further supported by differences in cell surface morphology, the fibrillated strain imaged in water being the only specimen that showed characteristic topographical features attributable to fibrils. These results are in excellent agreement with previous indirect measurements of cell surface softness by dynamic light scattering and particulate microelectrophoresis and demonstrate the potential of AFM to directly probe the softness of microbial cell surfaces.     

Surface topography of membrane domains

Elucidating origin, composition, size, and lifetime of microdomains in biological membranes remains a major issue for the understanding of cell biology. For lipid domains, the lack of a direct access to the behaviour of samples at the mesoscopic scale has constituted for long a major obstacle to their characterization, even in simple model systems made of immiscible binary mixtures. By its capacity to image soft surfaces with a resolution that extends from the molecular to the microscopic level, in air as well as under liquid, atomic force microscopy (AFM) has filled this gap and has become an inescapable tool in the study of the surface topography of model membrane domains, the first essential step for the understanding of biomembranes organization. In this review we mainly focus on the type of information on lipid microdomains in model systems that only AFM can provide. We will also examine how AFM can contribute to understand data acquired by a variety of other techniques and present recent developments which might open new avenues in model and biomembrane AFM applications.     

High-resolution imaging of the microbial cell surface

Microorganisms, or microbes, can function as threatening pathogens that cause disease in humans, animals, and plants; however, they also act as litter decomposers in natural ecosystems. As the outermost barrier and interface with the environment, the microbial cell surface is crucial for cell-to-cell communication and is a potential target of chemotherapeutic agents. Surface ultrastructures of microbial cells have typically been observed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Owing to its characteristics of low-temperature specimen preparation and superb resolution (down to 1 nm), cryo-field emission SEM has revealed paired rodlets, referred to as hydrophobins, on the cell walls of bacteria and fungi. Recent technological advances in AFM have enabled high-speed live cell imaging in liquid at the nanoscale level, leading to clear visualization of cell-drug interactions. Platinum-carbon replicas from freeze-fractured fungal spores have been observed using transmission electron microscopy, revealing hydrophobins with varying dimensions. In addition, AFM has been used to resolve bacteriophages in their free state and during infection of bacterial cells. Various microscopy techniques with enhanced spatial resolution, imaging speed, and versatile specimen preparation are being used to document cellular structures and events, thus addressing unanswered biological questions.     

Understanding carbohydrate-carbohydrate Interactions by means of glyconanotechnology

Carbohydrate-carbohydrate interaction is a reliable and versatile mechanism for cell adhesion and recognition. Glycosphingolipid (GSL) clusters at the cell membrane are mainly involved in this interaction. To investigate carbohydrate-carbohydrate interaction an integrated strategy (Glyconanotechnology) was developed. This strategy includes polyvalent tools (gold glyconanoparticles) mimicking GSL clustering at the cell membrane as well as analytical techniques such as AFM, TEM, and SPR to evaluate the interactions. The results obtained by means of this strategy and current status are presented.     

Targeted messenger RNA profiling of transfected breast cancer gene in a living cell

Selective messenger RNA (mRNA) profiling of transfected breast cancer gene expression in a living cell is demonstrated. Atomic force microscope (AFM) probe tips are structurally modified to create a dielectrophoretic force that attracts mRNA molecules within the cell nucleus. The tip end is chemically modified to hybridize only to the target mRNA from a pool of molecules within the nucleus. We successfully combined this scheme with standard assay techniques to develop an assay technology that can be used for early disease detection and basic studies in cell biology.     

不同厚度细胞薄切片对 AFM 图像反差的影响

利用原子力显微镜（ AFM ）观察超薄切片的表面,探索表面形貌与切片厚度、朝向等因素的关系以及对图像反差的影响 . 选择三种不同类型的细胞,培养后按电镜超薄切片法固定、包埋并切片后,将不同厚度的切片区分上下表面转移到云母上, AFM 在空气中以接触模式进行观察 . 结果发现,切片表面细胞相对包埋介质的凸起与凹陷与切片本身的厚度密切相关,并随切片厚度的不同呈现有规律的变化 . 实验统计结果显示这种现象可能具有普遍性 .