Age and local changes in the architectonics of the lymphatic bed of the wall of the jejunum and ileum in normal rabbits

Age and local changes of the lymphatic bed have been studied in the jejunum and ileum preparations obtained from 100 rabbits. The architectonics of the bed is stated to undergo some age and local changes. In fetuses and two-week-old rabbits, chyle sinuses are narrow and all flow into the capillaries of the tela submucosa. In one-month-old animals, the mucosal capillary network is developing and the chyle sinuses flow into it. In six--ten-month-old rabbits, intestinal bed is already formed, the chyle sinuses are wide. Aged changes are represented by a considerably rarefied networks, decrease in the chyle sinuses caliber, deformation of the sinus, capillary and vessel walls. In the jejunum, unlike the ileum, the chyle sinuses are of larger size and have more complex architectonics in the capillary networks of the mucosa and tela submucosa.     

Neural induction and patterning in the mouse in the absence of the node and its derivatives

The signals which induce vertebrate neural tissue and pattern it along the anterior-posterior (A-P) axis have been proposed to emanate from Spemann's organizer, which in mammals is a structure termed the node. However, mouse embryos mutant for HNF3 beta lack a morphological node and node derivatives yet undergo neural induction. Gene expression domains occur at their normal A-P axial positions along the mutant neural tubes in an apparently normal temporal manner, including the most anterior and posterior markers. This neural patterning occurs in the absence of expression of known organizer genes, including the neural inducers chordin and noggin. Other potential signaling centers in gastrulating mutant embryos appear to express their normal constellation of putative secreted factors, consistent with the possibility that neural-inducing and -patterning signals emanate from elsewhere or at an earlier time. Nevertheless, we find that the node and the anterior primitive streak, from which the node derives, are direct sources of neural-inducing signals, as judged by expression of the early midbrain marker Engrailed, in explant-recombination experiments. Similar experiments showed the neural-inducing activity in HNF3 beta mutants to be diffusely distributed. Our results indicate that the mammalian organizer is capable of neural induction and patterning of the neural plate, but that maintenance of an organizer-like signaling center is not necessary for either process.     

Metamorphosis in the Cirripedia Rhizocephala and the homology of the kentrogon and trichogon

The Rhizocephala are considered to be monophyletic due to several synapomorphies in the ontogeny of the cndoparasitic phase. The various types of metamorphosis described in the Rhizocephala are discussed and compared to metamorphosis in the Cirripedia Thoracica and Acrothoracica. In males and females of the suborder Kentrogonida. the cyprid settles and metamorphoses into a new instar, in males the trichogen and in females the infective kentrogon. The kentrogon goes through yet another. incomplete moult associated with the development of the stylet. Within the three kentrogonidan families. the Iernaeodiscid-peltogastrid type of kentrogon differs from the sacculinid type in the mode of attachment to the host. in the complexity of internal anatomy. in the position and penetration of the stylet, and in whether or not the cyprid carapace must be shed prior to penetration of the stylet. In the Akentrogonida metamorphosis never results in a new instar. Where observed (Clistosaccidae and Thompsoniidae). both male and female cyprids settle and penetrate into their substrate (female parasite or new host) with one of the antennules. Using the antennule as a syringe. male cyprids inject spermatogonia while female cyprids injects embryonic cells developing into an endoparasite. By comparison with metamorphosis in the Cirripedia Thoracica and Acrothoracica it is concluded that the presence of a metamorphic moult leading to a post-cyprid instar is plesiomorphic and that the trichogon and kentrogon are homologous with the first metamorphosed juvenile in these outgroups. The abbreviated ontogeny in the Akentrogonida without metamorphic moult and post-cyprid larval instars is considered apomorphic. This contradicts the long-held supposition that the Akentrogonida are the most‘primitive’Rhizocephala and dovetails with new information that this suborder contains many advanced traits. Within the Kentrogonida. the lernacodiseid-peltogastrid type of kentrogon is considered more plesiomorphic than the sacculinid type, which resembles the clistosaccidthompsoniid type in having the antennules involved in the penetration process. The homologization of the kentrogon with a juvenile barnacle indicates that presence of a kentrogon is plesiomorphic within the Rhizocephala and that the Kentrogonida is paraphyletic.     

Infanticide in primates and man and the problems of reconstructing the social behavior of the hominids

The general analysis of infanticide distribution pattern in primate and human populations is given. The possibilities to use the sociobiological, ecological, psycho-analytical and structural-social approaches are considered to explain the infanticide functions in primates. The necessity of exact data concerning the sex, age and social position of both: killers and victims (victim's mothers either) is stressed, as well the estimation of social situation in the group in the period before the infanticide. The qualitative differences in infanticide mechanisms in lower monkeys, anthropoids and man is illustrated. It is proposed to differentiate the infanticide on the individual level and as a group social strategy. The probability of infanticide in hominid societies on the different stages of evolution is discussed.     

Differences in the cyto- and angioarchitectonics of the ventral horns of the spinal cord in higher and lower vertebrates

When comparing structures of the ventral horns of the spinal cord in amphibia (Rana esculenta) and Carnivora (cat, dog), it has been stated that in the latter, together with increasing number of neurons their blood supply is improving. This is demonstrated as a growing density of the capillary network in the cerebral substance and increasing number of capillaries within 25 mcm around the neuronal bodies. Glial surrounding of the neurons changes considerably. Both in the amphibia and Carnivora astrocytes and oligodendrocytes play the role of neuronal satellites. But in the amphibia astrocytes as satellites occur much more often than oligodendrocytes. This is evidently connected with a low blood supply and with certain peculiarities of metabolic processes in the cerebral tissue.     

Changes in the Levels and Forms of Cholinesterases in the Blood Plasma of Normal and Dystrophic Chickens

Abstract: Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and pseudocholinesterase (°ChE) were analysed in the blood plasma of developing chickens, both normal and those with inherited muscular dystrophy. The amounts and the molecular forms of each were examined. °ChE concentration rises in the plasma of normal and dystrophic chicks at the end of embryonic development and is maintained after hatching at a constant, relatively high level, accounting for 90-95% of total cholinesterase activity in normal plasma. This level is maintained in normal and dystrophic chickens. In embryonic plasma of both normal and dystrophic chicks, on the other hand, the levels of AChE are higher than those of °ChE. Immediately after hatching the AChE level decreases rapidly in normal plasma, reaching a very low level by 2-3 weeks ex ovo. The AChE level in plasma from dystrophic birds, although less than normal from day 19 in ovo to 2 weeks ex ovo, subsequently increases to peak around 4 months at levels 15-20-fold of those in normal birds. There is virtually no enzyme of either type in the erythrocytes of normal or dystrophic chickens. The changes of AChE in plasma were correlated with the alterations of AChE in dystrophic fast-twitch muscles, suggesting that the latter pool is a precursor of the plasma AChE. Both the AChE and the °ChE in plasma exist in multiple molecular forms, which are similar to certain of those found previously in the muscles of these birds. The major form (60-80%) of both enzymes in the plasma is the M form (sedimentation coefficient ≥11 S) in all cases, but it is accompanied by certain other forms. In no case is there any of the heaviest form (H₂, 19-20 S) of AChE or of °ChE found in normal and dystrophic muscle, which is attached at the synapses in normal muscle. The pattern of forms of plasma °ChE is constant at all ages, and in normal and dystrophic chickens. The pattern of forms of AChE in the plasma, in contrast, varies with age and with dystrophy in a characteristic manner. The sedimentation coefficients and the amounts of the enzymes in fast-twitch muscle of dystrophic animals are compared with those of the plasma forms, and an interpretation is given of the characteristic patterns of AChE and of χE in their blood.     

Processes of excitation in the dendrites and in the soma of single isolated sensory nerve cells of the lobster and crayfish

The stretch receptor organs of Alexandrowicz in lobster and crayfish possess sensory neurons which have their cell bodies in the periphery. The cell bodies send dendrites into a fine nearby muscle strand and at the opposite pole they give rise to an axon running to the central nervous system. Mechanisms of excitation between dendrites, cell soma, and axon have been studied in completely isolated receptor structures with the cell components under visual observation. Two sensory neuron types were investigated, those which adapt rapidly to stretch, the fast cells, and those which adapt slowly, the slow cells. 1. Potentials recorded from the cell body of the neurons with intracellular leads gave resting potentials of 70 to 80 mv. and action potentials which in fresh preparations exceeded the resting potentials by about 10 to 20 mv. In some experiments chymotrypsin or trypsin was used to make cell impalement easier. They did not appreciably alter resting or action potentials. 2. It has been shown that normally excitation starts in the distal portion of dendrites which are depolarized by stretch deformation. The changed potential within the dendritic terminals can persist for the duration of stretch and is called the generator potential. Secondarily, by electrotonic spread, the generator potential reduces the resting potential of the nearby cell soma. This excitation spread between dendrites and soma is seen best during subthreshold excitation by relatively small stretches of normal cells. It is also seen during the whole range of receptor stretch in neurons in which nerve conduction has been blocked by an anesthetic. The electrotonic changes in the cells are graded, reflecting the magnitude and rate of rise of stretch, and presumably the changing levels of the generator potential. Thus in the present neurons the resting potential and the excitability level of the cell soma can be set and controlled over a wide range by local events within the dendrites. 3. Whenever stretch reduces the resting membrane potential, measured in the relaxed state in the cell body, by 8 to 12 mv. in slow cells and by 17 to 22 mv. in fast cells, conducted impulses are initiated. It is thought that in slow cells conducted impulses are initiated in the dendrites while in fast cells they arise in the cell body or near to it. In fresh preparations the speed of stretch does not appreciably influence the membrane threshold for discharges, while during developing fatigue the firing level is higher when extension is gradual. 4. Some of the specific neuron characteristics are: Fast receptor cells have a relatively high threshold to stretch. During prolonged stretch the depolarization of the cell soma is not well maintained, presumably due to a decline in the generator potential, resulting in cessation of discharges in less than a minute. This appears to be the basis of the relatively rapid adaptation. A residual subthreshold depolarization can persist for many minutes of stretch. Slow cells which resemble the sensory fibers of vertebrate spindles are excited by weak stretch. Their discharge rate remains remarkably constant for long periods. It is concluded that, once threshold excitation is reached, the generator potential within slow cell dendrites is well maintained for the duration of stretch. Possible reasons for differences in discharge properties between fast and slow cells are discussed. 5. If stretch of receptor cells is gradually continued above threshold, the discharge frequency first increases over a considerable range without an appreciable change in the firing level for discharges. Beyond that range the membrane threshold for conducted responses of the cell soma rises, the impulses become smaller, and partial conduction in the soma-axon boundary region occurs. At a critical depolarization level which may be maintained for many minutes, all conduction ceases. These overstretch phenomena are reversible and resemble cathodal block. 6. The following general scheme of excitation is proposed: stretch deformation of dendritic terminals → generator potential → electrotonic spread toward the cell soma (prepotential) → dendrite-soma impulse → axon impulse. 7. Following release of stretch a transient hyperpolarization of slow receptor cells was seen. This off effect is influenced by the speed of relaxation. 8. Membrane potential changes recorded in the cell bodies serve as very sensitive detectors of activity within the receptor muscle bundles, indicating the extent and time course of contractile events.     

Expression of vinexin alpha in the dorsal half of the eye and in the cardiac outflow tract and atrioventricular canal

The Smads are intracellular signalling molecules that transduce signals from receptors for members of the TGF-beta superfamily to the nucleus. We have cloned the Xenopus orthologue of Smad3 (XSmad3). It is 94.6% identical to human Smad3 at the amino acid level. It is expressed as a maternal mRNA which disappears after stage 10.5, but reappears at the early tailbud stages. It is much less abundant than XSmad2 at the early developmental stages. From Stage 27 onwards XSmad3 is expressed with XSmad2 throughout the head region and in the somitic region. Strikingly however, XSmad3 alone is specifically expressed in the chordoneural hinge, the notochord and in the developing heart. Closer analysis reveals that XSmad3 is specifically expressed in the endocardium but not in the myocardium or pericardium. The chordoneural hinge staining persists at least until stage 40 whereas the staining in the endocardium peaks at approximately stage 32/33.     

Sclerotin and lipid in the waterproofing of the insect cuticle

In all the cuticles studied waterproofing is effected by extracuticular material, a mixture of sclerotin precursors and lipids, exuded from the tubular filaments of the pore canals. In Rhodnius larval abdomen it is a layer of thickness similar to the outer epicuticle, believed to be composed of 'sclerotin' and wax, in Schistocerca larval sternal cuticle and in Carausius sternal cuticle it is similar. In Tenebrio adult sternal cuticle of the abdomen, in both the extracuticular exudation and the contents of the distal endings of the tubular filaments, the wax component is obscured by hard 'sclerotin'. In Manduca larva a very thin layer of 'sclerotin' and wax is covered by an irregular wax layer, average 0.75 micron, twice the thickness of the inner epicuticle. In Periplaneta and Blattella the abdominal cuticle is covered by a soft waxy layer, often about 1 micron thick, which is mixed with argentaffin material. Below this is a very thin waterproof layer of wax and 'sclerotin' continuous with the contents of the tubular filaments, which is readily removed by adsorptive dusts. In Apis adult abdominal terga free wax plus sclerotin precursors form a thin layer which is known to be removed by adsorptive dusts. In Calliphora larva there is a very thin layer of the usual mixed wax and sclerotin and below this a thick (0.5 micron) layer, lipid staining and strongly osmiophil, likewise extracuticular and exuded from the epicuticular channels. This material (which is often called 'outer epicuticle') has the same staining and resistance properties as the true outer epicuticle on which it rests. In the abdomen of Calliphora adult the waterproofing wax-sclerotin mixture forms a thin layer over the entire cuticle including the surface of the microtrichia. There is also a thin detachable layer of free wax on the surface.     

Exploring the Peaks and Valleys in the Number of Births in Portugal

In spite of the remarkable downward trend in fertility that characterizes Portugal, birth seasonality is still evident. A time series analysis of the data shows that, in general, May and September are months where more births take place and that December and February are the months with the lowest figures. In particular, the September peak in births, which is the most remarkable result, is shown to be related to end-of-year (economic) expectations.     

Differences in the concentration of erythrocytes and the hematocrit value in the blood in relation to the location of the vessels and the intensity of the blood flow

The experiments in adult rabbits revealed that in the blood flowing in cerebral veins the red cell concentration and hematocrit are much greater than in the veins of hind legs of the same animals. In blood samples taken from the heart these values are higher than in those taken from the hind leg, but usually lower than in blood samples taken from the brain. Under conditions of reduced cerebral blood flow (ischemia) the red cell concentration and hematocrit in the brain vessels decrease significantly as compared to the control conditions. Thus, the red cell distribution in arterial branching sequence is irregular, depending both on the localization of the vascular bed and the blood flow rate in it.     

Tracking in the Wlds--the hunting of the SIRT and the luring of the Draper

Wallerian degeneration of distal axons after nerve injury is significantly delayed in the Wlds mutant mouse. The Wlds protein is a fusion of nicotinamide mononucleotide adenyltransferase-1 (Nmnat1), an essential enzyme in the biosynthesis pathway of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), with the N-terminal 70 amino acids of the Ube4b ubiquitination assembly factor. The mechanism of Wlds action is still enigmatic, although recent efforts suggest that it is indirect and requires sequences flanking or linking the two fused open reading frames. Three papers in this issue of Neuron now show that Wlds action is conserved in Drosophila and that a critical role of Wlds may be the suppression of axonal self-destruct signals that induce Draper-mediated clearance of damaged axons by glial cells.     

Pyruvate decarboxylation in astrocytes and in neurons in primary cultures in the presence and the absence of ammonia

Oxidative decarboxylation of [1-¹⁴C]pyruvate was studied in primary cultures of neurons and of astrocytes. The rate of this process, which is a measure of carbon flow into the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and which is inhibited by its end product, acetyl CoA, was determined under conditions which would either elevate or reduce the components of the malate-aspartate shuttle (MAS). Addition of aspartate (1 mM) was found to stimulate pyruvate decarboxylation in astrocytes whereas addition of glutamate (or glutamine) had no effect. Since aspartate is a precursor for extramitochondrial malate, and thus intramitochondrial oxaloacetate, whereas glutamate and glutamine are not, this suggests that an increase in oxaloacetate level stimulates TCA cycle activity. Conversely, a reduction of the glutamate content by 3 mM ammonia, which might reduce exchange between glutamate and aspartate across the mitochondrial membrane, suppressed pyruvate decarboxylation. This effect was abolished by addition of glutamate or glutamine or exposure to methionine sulfoximine (MSO). These findings suggest that impairment of MAS activity by removal of MAS constituents decreases TCA cycle activity whereas replenishment of these compounds restores the activity of the TCA cycle. No corresponding effects were observed in neurons.     

Changes in the content of the fibrillar collagens and the expression of their mRNAs in the menisci of the rabbit knee joint during development and ageing

Summary The menisci are first seen as triangular aggregations of cells in the 20-day rabbit fetus. At 25-days, a matrix that contains types I, III and V collagens has formed. These collagens are also found in the 1-week neonatal meniscus, but by 3 weeks, type II collagen is present in some regions. By 12 to 14 weeks, typically cartilaginous areas with large cells in lacunae are found and by 2 years, these occupy the central regions of the inner two-thirds of the meniscus. The surface layers of the meniscus contain predominantly type I collagen. From 12 to 14 weeks onwards, there is little overlap between the regions with types I or II collagens, that is, these are discrete regions of type I-containing fibrocartilage and type II-containing cartilage. Types III and V collagens are found throughout the menisci, particularly in the pericellular regions. All the cells in the fetal and early neonatal menisci express the mRNA for type I collagen. At 3 weeks postnatal, cells that express type I collagen mRNA are found throughout the meniscus, but type II collagen mRNA is expressed only in the regions of developing cartilage. At 12- to 14-weeks, only type II collagen mRNA is expressed, except at the periphery next to the ligament where a few cells still express type I collagen mRNA. Rabbit menisci, therefore, undergo profound changes in their content and arrangement of collagens during postnatal development.     

The morphology of the cardia and the pylorus in the Chiroptera

Organ complexes of bats (Nyctalis noctula), consisting of oesophagus, stomach and initial part of the small intestine have been subjected to histological and morphometrical investigation. As demonstrates the histological investigation of the preparations, the denticulate line of the mucous membrane of the oesophageal-gastric passage is displaced towards the stomach. In the cardia a well manifested internal sphincter has been revealed. In the place, where the stomach passes into the small intestine, on a small area of the submucosal tela of the intestine, there is an accumulation of secretory parts of the duodenal glands. They form a glandular torulus, which narrows the transitional zone lumen. A peculiarity of the bat pylorus is absence of an anatomical sphincter in it.     

Structure and function of the genes involved in the biosynthesis of carotenoids in the mucorales

Carotenoids are widely distributed natural pigments which are in an increasing demand by the market, due to their applications in the human food, animal feed, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries. Although more than 600 carotenoids have been identified in nature, only a few are industrially important (β-carotene, astaxanthin, lutein or lycopene). To date chemical processes manufacture most of the carotenoid production, but the interest for carotenoids of biological origin is growing since there is an increased public concern over the safety of artificial food colorants. Although much interest and effort has been devoted to the use of biological sources for industrially important carotenoids, only the production of biological β-carotene and astaxanthin has been reported. Among fungi, several Mucorales strains, particularlyBlakeslea trispora, have been used to develop fermentation process for the production of β-carotene on almost competitive cost-price levels. Similarly, the basidiomycetous yeastXanthophyllomyces dendrorhous (the perfect state ofPhaffia rhodozyma), has been proposed as a promising source of astaxanthin. This paper focuses on recent findings on the fungal pathways for carotenoid production, especially the structure and function of the genes involved in the biosynthesis of carotenoids in the Mucorales. An outlook of the possibilities of an increased industrial production of carotenoids, based on metabolic engineering of fungi for carotenoid content and composition, is also discussed.