Can digital image classification be used as a standardised method for surveying peatland vegetation cover?

The ability to carry out systematic, accurate and repeatable vegetation surveys is an essential part of long-term scientific studies into ecosystem biodiversity and functioning. However, current widely used traditional survey techniques such as destructive harvests, pin frame quadrats and visual cover estimates can be very time consuming and are prone to subjective variations. We investigated the use of digital image techniques as an alternative way of recording vegetation cover to plant functional type level on a peatland ecosystem. Using an established plant manipulation experimental site at Moor House NNR (an Environmental Change Network site), we compared visual cover estimates of peatland vegetation with cover estimates using digital image classification methods, from 0.5 m × 0.5 m field plots. Our results show that digital image classification of photographs taken with a standard digital camera can be used successfully to estimate dwarf-shrub and graminoid vegetation cover at a comparable level to field visual cover estimates, although the methods were less effective for lower plants such as mosses and lichens. Our study illustrates the novel application of digital image techniques to provide a new way of measuring and monitoring peatland vegetation to the plant functional group level, which is less vulnerable to surveyor bias than are visual field surveys. Furthermore, as such digital techniques are highly repeatable, we suggest that they have potential for use in long-term monitoring studies, at both plot and landscape scales.     

Long-term effects of grazing on subalpine and alpine grasslands in the Central Alps,Austria

The effects of grazing exclusion on species diversity and functional diversity were analyzed along an elevation gradient from the subalpine (1960 m a.s.l.) to the lower and upper alpine zone (2275 m–2650 m a.s.l.) in the Austrian Central Alps for 15 years. Nine sites were chosen, including grasslands at different elevations, a bog and a glacier foreland site at the lower alpine zone and a snowbed at the upper alpine zone. Data were acquired by frequency counts in 1 m² permanent plots inside each fenced area (three plots per site) and outside in grazed areas (three plots). Diversity indices and functional diversity were analyzed by means of generalized linear mixed models (GLMMs). Exclosure, duration of exclusion and exclosure*years (interaction effect) were defined as predictor variables. Multivariate ordination techniques were used to (i) determine species responses to grazing exclusion (pRDA, partial redundancy analysis) and (ii) to create a distance matrix representing the changes between exclosures and control plots per year (NMDS, non-metric multidimensional scaling). At the subalpine grassland, first differences between exclosure and control plots occurred already only after three years, at the upper alpine zone after four and five years. Contrary to our expectation, dwarf shrubs did not increase within the exclosures of the subalpine grassland. Instead, mainly the tall forb Geranium sylvaticum increased. Species richness significantly decreased at the exclosures of the subalpine zone, the snowbed and at one upper alpine grassland sites. The communities of the glacier foreland and the bog were hardly affected by grazing exclusion.We conclude that plant species and communities react individually depending on elevation and grazing animals. Grazing exclusion studies at high elevations should definitely be carried out in the long-term.     

Experimental evidence for a delayed response of the above-ground vegetation and the seed bank to the invasion of an annual exotic plant in deciduous forests

Invasions by alien plants significantly affect native biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. We conducted a 5-year field experiment to investigate potential effects of the annual invasive plant Impatiens glandulifera on both the native above-ground vegetation and the soil seed bank in a deciduous forest in Switzerland. Eight years after the establishment of I. glandulifera, we set up plots in patches invaded by the alien plant, in plots from which the invasive plant had been manually removed and in plots which were not yet colonized by the invasive plant. We examined plant species richness, diversity and plant species composition in the above-ground vegetation and soil seed bank in all plots one year and five years after the initiation of the experiment. The 36 plots (3 plot types × 6 replicates × 2 sites) were equally distributed over two forest sites. Neither the native above-ground vegetation nor the soil seed bank was influenced by the presence of I. glandulifera one year after the start of the field experiment. After five years, however, plant species richness of both the above-ground vegetation and the soil seed bank was reduced by 25% and 30%, respectively, in plots invaded by the alien plant compared to plots from which I. glandulifera had been removed or uninvaded plots. Furthermore, plots invaded by the alien plant had a lower total seedling density (reduction by 60%) and an altered plant species composition in the soil seed bank compared to control plots. Our field experiment indicates that negative effects of the annual invasive plant on the native above-ground vegetation and soil seed bank of deciduous forests become visible with a delay of several years.     

Microhabitat variations and seed bank-vegetation relationships in a desert wadi ecosystem

Due to extreme variability in patterns of rainfall, plant seed banks are an important component of desert habitats. Here I report on effects of standing vegetation and three different microhabitats (channel, bank and terrace) on the soil seed bank of a desert wadi ecosystem in the Eastern Desert of Egypt. A total of 450 soil samples at 45 stands were collected to represent the different wadi microhabitats. The germinable seed bank was estimated by controlled counts of seedling emergence. The floristic composition, functional properties and diversity of the soil seed bank, as well as its similarity with the standing vegetation varied among wadi microhabitats. Such variation could be attributed to differences in disturbance intensity among microhabitats (terrace < bank < channel) and variation of soil factors along the microtopographic gradient. Channel showed the highest species richness and size of soil seed bank, followed by bank and then terrace. Moreover the Shannon index of diversity of the seed bank and its similarity with standing vegetation were significantly greater in both channel and bank microhabitats than in terrace. At the level of plant functional groups, number of seeds of annuals was higher in both channel and bank than in terrace. Shrubs were more abundant in seed banks of channel compared to terrace. The size and species richness of seed bank were increased with the total plant cover, annual/perennial ratio and species richness of the standing vegetation.     

Influence of tree cover on herbaceous layer development and carbon and water fluxes in a Portuguese cork-oak woodland

Facilitation and competition between different vegetation layers may have a large impact on small-scale vegetation development. We propose that this should not only influence overall herbaceous layer yield but also species distribution and understory longevity, and hence the ecosystems carbon uptake capacity especially during spring. We analyzed the effects of trees on microclimate and soil properties (water and nitrate content) as well as the development of an herbaceous community layer regarding species composition, aboveground biomass and net water and carbon fluxes in a cork-oak woodland in Portugal, between April and November 2011.The presence of trees caused a significant reduction in photosynthetic active radiation of 35 mol m⁻² d⁻¹ and in soil temperature of 5 °C from April to October. At the same time differences in species composition between experimental plots located in open areas and directly below trees could be observed: species composition and abundance of functional groups became increasingly different between locations from mid April onwards. During late spring drought adapted native forbs had significantly higher cover and biomass in the open area while cover and biomass of grasses and nitrogen fixing forbs was highest under the trees. Further, evapotranspiration and net carbon exchange decreased significantly stronger under the tree crowns compared to the open during late spring and the die back of herbaceous plants occurred earlier and faster under trees. This was most likely caused by interspecific competition for water between trees and herbaceous plants, despite the more favorable microclimate conditions under the trees during the onset of summer drought.     

Effects of plateau pika (Ochotona curzoniae) on alpine meadow phytocoenosium and analysis of the strategy it uses to expand habitat

High-density plateau pikas (Ochotona curzoniae) disturbance is one of the main causes of alpine meadow degradation. The response of phytocoenosium to the disturbance of plateau pika may reflect its habitat expanding strategy. We used quadrat sampling method to investigate vegetation height, coverage, and aboveground biomass of non-pika area (NA), transition area (TA), and pika-active area (AA) distributed continuously in alpine meadow located in Guoluo Tibetan Autonomous County of Qinghai Province in 2011 and 2012. The results showed that, from NA to AA (i) vegetation coverage, height, and above-ground biomass decreased (P < 0.01). (ii) While the number of plant species decreased from 41 to 30, and species diversity decreased significantly (P < 0.05), evenness of the alpine meadow showed no significant variations. (iii) Dominant species changed from grasses to weeds. (iv) While plants in TA showed no obvious difference in height between 2011 and 2012, coverage reduced significantly (P < 0.05). These results demonstrate that (i) plateau pikas disturbance on alpine meadow will change plant community structure and composition, directly leading to degeneration of alpine meadow. Additionally, (ii) plateau pikas expand their habitat by altering plant coverage firstly.     

Altitude modifies species richness–nutrient indicator value relationships in a country-wide survey of grassland vegetation

Nutrient enrichment is a threat to botanical diversity in Europe, and its assessment is part of biodiversity monitoring schemes. In Switzerland, this is done by calculating the average nutrient (N) indicator value of the vegetation based on a country-wide systematic vegetation survey. However, it is questionable whether N values indicate eutrophication and resulting species loss equally well across an entire country, which includes wide topographic gradients and distinct biogeographic regions. Here we analyze vascular plant species lists from 415 grassland plots (10 m²) between 365 and 2770 m a.s.l. throughout Switzerland to investigate how the relationship between N value and species richness differs with altitude and among regions. The N value strongly decreased with altitude (piecewise regression: r² = 0.77), particularly between 800 and 2000 m a.s.l., where this decrease was related to a decreasing proportion of fertilized grasslands. In the alpine belt, lower N values were associated with a greater frequency of acidic soils and a restricted species pool. Vascular plant species richness was maximal at intermediate altitude (piecewise regression: r² = 0.33) and intermediate N value (polynomial regression: r² = 0.46). When analyzed separately by altitudinal belt, the relationship between species richness and N value was negative in the lowlands and montane belt but unimodal in the subalpine belt. In the alpine belt, soil pH (R indicator values) explained most of the variation in species richness. Two indices of between-plot diversity (floristic dissimilarity and the contribution of individual plots to total species richness) were negatively related to N values from the lowlands to the subalpine belt but not in the alpine belt. All relationships differed little among the biogeographic regions of Switzerland, but they might be modified by changes in management and by the expansion of common lowland species into mountain grasslands.     

Simulation of land use–soil interactive effects on water and sediment yields at watershed scale

Influences of vegetation management on soil erosion have been extensively studied. However, interactive effects between land use and soil are poorly documented in literature. Given the importance of understanding such effects for successful watershed management, the objective of this study was to examine the land use–soil interactive effects on water and sediment yields for the 117,845-ha drainage area upstream of the U.S. Geological Survey flow gauging station 08101000 in the Cowhouse Creek watershed located in north central Texas. The examination was implemented using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT), a distributed watershed model that has been widely used to tackle problems relevant to nonpoint source pollution. A SWAT model was calibrated and validated in accordance with the observed daily streamflows at this gauging station. Subsequently, the calibrated model was used to examine changes of water and sediment yields as a result of the conversion of range brush to range grasses on an individual soil basis. The results indicated that for the study area, the removal of range brush would result in an annual water yield increase of 24 mm ha^?1 treated area. However, the removal on an upland soil with a moderately high permeability was predicted to increase the annual water yield by 80 mm ha^?1 treated area, while it would result in a small increase of annual sediment loading (4.2 t ha^?1 treated area) and a minimal alteration to the existing spatial patterns of sediment sources. The increase of water yield would be larger for the removal of range brush on a soil that is adjacent to the stream channels. For a given soil, the predicted water yield increase was greater for the wetter hydrologic condition than that for the drier one. A reasonable generalization of this study was that the development of best management practices for watershed health and sustainability may need to take into account land use–soil interactive effects on an individual soil basis.     

Livestock paths on Namaqualand quartz fields: Will the endemic flora disappear?

Quartz fields are rare features that contribute significantly to vegetation diversity and endemism of South Africa's Succulent Karoo Biome. The Riethuis-Wallekraal quartz fields in the north-western Namaqualand area of South Africa contain 17 quartz field specialist species of which seven are endemic to this specific area. Hoof-action by livestock has formed paths of approximately 0.30 m on these quartz fields. It would be important to conservationists to understand whether direct (e.g. trampling) and indirect effects (e.g. burial of flora by sediment movement) associated with the livestock paths holds any threat to the dwarf succulent (< 0.05 m) and micro-chamaephytes (0.06–0.15 m) endemic to the quartz fields. We tested the hypotheses that the unique quartz field vegetation and biological soil crusts would be affected by loose soil particles transported downslope from the paths. The soil stability index, total vegetation cover, cover of specialized quartz field species and species diversity were lower on livestock paths but did not differ between upslope and downslope locations. Livestock paths also had lower cover and fewer quartz field specialist species. It is concluded that under conditions of intense and continuous grazing, livestock are likely to have an even stronger negative impact on the specialist quartz field flora.     

Response of plant and gastropod species to knotweed invasion

Invasive species of the knotweed complex (Fallopia sp.) have repeatedly been shown to decrease diversity of native local biota. While effects on plant species richness are well established, effects on invertebrate and in particular gastropod species richness are less well understood. We recorded cover of plant species and diversity and abundance of gastropod species in four plots (1 m × 1 m) with Fallopia japonica and compared these to paired control plots without F. japonica at 15 sites along the river Birs (Switzerland) in early summer (June) and autumn (September). Knotweed and control plots did not differ in site characteristics and soil parameters.Average plant species richness in F. japonica plots was 50% lower compared to control plots. This reduction was significant for woody species as well as for herbaceous species. However, species richness of early flowering annuals did not differ significantly. Among the species most affected by knotweed were hop (Humulus lupulus) and European spindle tree (Euonymus europaeus) but also stand-forming species such as nettle (Urtica dioica) or ground elder (Aegopodium podagraria).Average snail species richness was significantly reduced in F. japonica plots. The reduction was pronounced in large (≥5 mm shell size) and long-lived (>2 years) snail species but not in slugs or small and short-lived snails. For example, large snails such as the Roman snail (Helix pomatia, ?85%) or the red-listed species Bradybaena fruticum (?93%), showed reduced abundances in F. japonica compared to control plots. In contrast, the red-listed but small Vertigo pusilla (+92%) had higher abundances in F. japoinca plots. Principal component analyses revealed little overlap in plant communities or community composition of large snail species between F. japonica and control plots. Taken together, knotweed invasion decreased the cover of most plant species and abundance of large and long-lived gastropods.     

Growth responses of Zostera capricorni to estuarine sediment conditions

This study comprised (1) a field survey of intertidal seagrass (Zostera capricorni) biomass, cover and photosynthetic potential and sediment characteristics at a range of contrasting sites in three New Zealand harbours, and (2) a microcosm experiment comparing plant responses to sediments from extant versus historical seagrass sites. The field survey showed that the sediment physico-chemical characteristics were generally consistent with the limited previous reports for Zostera environments, although the total P concentration range was higher (0.08–0.72 mg P g⁻¹). Overall, 52% of variation in seagrass cover was explained by sediment water content (R = 0.54) and organic content (R = −0.56). Twenty-two percent of variation in seagrass biomass was explained by sediment total P and redox potential (both R = −0.35). Intra-harbour seagrass–sediment relationships were more significant (explaining up to 82% of plant variation) but harbour-specific. In the microcosm experiment, threefold higher Z. capricorni biomass was maintained on extant than historical sediments but not conclusively linked to measure sediment characteristics. Overall, the results of this study demonstrate that significant relations can exist between estuarine sediment conditions and Z. capricorni growth responses, and suggest that detrimental change in sediment conditions may be a contributing factor in seagrass decline.     

Repeatability and implementation of a forest vegetation indicator

The composition, diversity, and structure of vascular plants are important indicators of forest health. Changes in species diversity, structural diversity, and the abundance of non-native species are common national concerns, and are part of the international criteria for assessing sustainability of forestry practices. The vegetation indicator for the national Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) Program, USA, was designed to assess these issues. The objectives of this study were to: (1) assess the repeatability and practicality of the vegetation field techniques using independent measurements of 48 plots by two botanists and (2) examine the interpretation of forest health indicators from 2 years of data collected on 110 plots in the state of Oregon. Plant identification was similar for both botanists, with 80% of all plant species on the plot being identified to species, and another 14% identified to the genus level; the greatest problems were in dry forest types where plants had senesced by July. Agreement among botanists for species identification was 71% at the subplot level and 67% at the quadrat level, with many differences caused by plants being identified as closely related species, usually in the same genus. As a result, agreement between botanists on species richness and the abundance of non-native species was high, with correlation coefficients of 0.94 and 0.98, respectively. Quadrats detected only 20% of the species found from the subplot search, on average. Although botanists differed in their speed, 22% of subplot searches were completed within 15 min and 71% were completed within 30 min. Dramatic differences in patterns of plant diversity were found across the ecological regions of Oregon, with high plot richness and the highest species turnover among plots found in the Blue Mountains. Abundance of non-native species varied from 15% of the species in juniper (Juniperus occidentalis Hook.) stands to 1% in high-elevation conifer stands. The proportion of cover made up of non-native species was highest in juniper and Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa P. & C. Lawson) forest types. Numbers of non-native species on a plot increased with the number of native species, but the relationship was weak (R² = 0.09). Results suggest that the vegetation indicator provides a robust and valuable tool for assessing forest health.     

Windows of opportunity for Prosopis velutina seedling establishment and encroachment in a semiarid grassland

Large increases in the density of woody plants in former grasslands have been documented globally over the past two centuries. Prosopis velutina (velvet mesquite) has recently expanded on over 38 million ha in the grasslands of the American southwest.Mesquite establishment and expansion is potentially influenced by competitive interactions with grasses, particle size distribution (texture) of soil and changes in the amount and/or seasonality of precipitation, amongst other factors.To investigate the relative importance of precipitation seasonality, grass competition, and soil texture on mesquite seedling and establishment, we experimentally manipulated seasonality of precipitation across 72 1.5 m × 1.7 m plots that we planted with two grasses from contrasting functional groups (or left unvegetated) across two highly contrasting soil textures within a semi-desert grassland in Arizona, USA, wherein we followed the demography of 8640 planted mesquite seeds between 2002 and 2006. Up to 70% of the variance in seedling emergence was explained by soil water content, and seedling mortality was more dependent on summer than on winter precipitation.Mortality of less drought tolerant grasses after drought in coarse textured soils created conditions most favorable for seedling establishment, whereas lower rates of seedling establishment were observed in finer textured soils or in plots dominated by more drought tolerant grasses.We conclude that mesquite encroachment is episodic, based on discontinuous patterns of seedling establishment, favored on coarse textured soils and associated with unique conditions of high summer water availability when precipitation is not limiting and when competition from grasses is lowered.     

Growth responses of Zostera capricorni to estuarine sediment conditions

This study comprised (1) a field survey of intertidal seagrass (Zostera capricorni) biomass, cover and photosynthetic potential and sediment characteristics at a range of contrasting sites in three New Zealand harbours, and (2) a microcosm experiment comparing plant responses to sediments from extant versus historical seagrass sites. The field survey showed that the sediment physico-chemical characteristics were generally consistent with the limited previous reports for Zostera environments, although the total P concentration range was higher (0.08–0.72 mg P g⁻¹). Overall, 52% of variation in seagrass cover was explained by sediment water content (R = 0.54) and organic content (R = −0.56). Twenty-two percent of variation in seagrass biomass was explained by sediment total P and redox potential (both R = −0.35). Intra-harbour seagrass–sediment relationships were more significant (explaining up to 82% of plant variation) but harbour-specific. In the microcosm experiment, threefold higher Z. capricorni biomass was maintained on extant than historical sediments but not conclusively linked to measure sediment characteristics. Overall, the results of this study demonstrate that significant relations can exist between estuarine sediment conditions and Z. capricorni growth responses, and suggest that detrimental change in sediment conditions may be a contributing factor in seagrass decline.     

Cover as a simple predictor of biomass for two shrubs in Tibet

Knowledge of the quantitative relationship between plant cover and its corresponding biomass for shrubs is not well known, especially for those on the Tibetan Plateau. Based on investigations of 35 sites, 90 plots and 95 standard individuals for two typical shrub species (Rhododendron nivale Hook. f. and Sophora moorcroftiana (Benth.) Baker) across Tibet, we developed allometric models for biomass estimation from measurements of crown diameter and/or height. We found that the parameters of crown projection area (CPA), height and their product (volume) were all significantly (p < 0.01) correlated with dry mass of different organs for both species at individual level. The CPA rather than volume best predicted aboveground dry mass. This is because that the bulk density declined significantly with increasing plant height, leading to the inappropriateness for plant height itself being employed as a parameter in biomass estimation, especially for shrubs in smaller size groups. At community level, cover was tightly correlated with the aboveground, belowground and total biomass (R² = 0.97–0.99). Therefore, biomass for the two shrubs can be simply estimated by measuring plant cover, which enables rapid estimation of shrubland carbon stock at large scales by using satellite data and repeated experiments over time. This non-destructive method using cover to estimate shrub biomass can be applied not only in arid ecosystems but also in alpine or subalpine environment.     

The effect of plant succession on slope stability

The aim of this field investigation was to study the enrichment of biodiversity of the slope at an early phase of succession, initiated by selected pioneers, and to study how this enrichment related to enhancement of the slope stability. Four experimental plots, with differing plant pioneers and number of species (diversity), were designed in order to assess the effects of plant succession on slope stability. Plant growth pattern was assessed by observing the increment in species diversity (number), species frequency and plant biomass. Higher vegetation biomass in a mixed culture situation (LLSS) in the field with Leucaena leucocephala as a pioneer, marked an increase in species diversity after 24 months of observation. In contrast, G (grasses and legume creepers) plot revealed the slowest rate of succession and the lowest above-ground biomass amongst the plots. The mixed-culture plot without L. leucocephala (SS) had also shown a lower biomass, a similar phenomenon observed in a plot grown by L. leucocephala (LL) with low plant diversity. Consequently, these plant growth patterns gave a positive effect on slope stability where the regression study showed that the shear strength was much affected by plant biomass. Meanwhile, throughout the succession process in LLSS plot, root length density reached the highest value amongst the plots, 23 Km m^?3. In relation to this, the saturation level of the slope indicates the unsaturated condition of the soil which resulted in the enhancement of both soil penetrability and soil shear strength of the plot. These attributes reveal a strong positive relationship between the process of natural succession and the stability of slopes.     

Ecological effects of forest roads on plant species diversity in Caspian forests of Iran

Current research includes the effects of asphalt forest roads on changes of plant cover and tree regeneration from asphalt forest roads edges towards its inner parts in two compartments of Nave Asalem forests located in the north of Iran. For this reason, in each side of road, 6 sample plots (20 m × 20 m) were established for measuring plant species diversity. In each sample plot, ground vegetation and tree regeneration were assessed within nine 2 × 2 m micro plots. In total, 12 sample plots and 108 μ plots were established. Results indicated that the road positions were effective on plant species diversity. The highest diversity and evenness indices value were observed down of the road compared to the up of the road position for herbal and tree regeneration layers. The same results were found also for herbal richness indices. Up of road position had the greatest value of richness indices in comparison to the other road position for tree regeneration layer. Also, the results showed that diversity, richness, and evenness indices were decreased with the increasing of distance from the road side for herbs and tree regeneration layers. This study indicated that roads can increase plant biodiversity; that is, tree regeneration density.     

Distribution and ecology of the assemblages of myxomycetes associated with major vegetation types in Big Bend National Park,USA

The distribution and ecology of the assemblages of myxomycetes associated with four different microhabitats were studied in Big Bend National Park in Texas. During Mar. 2005, twelve plots (30 × 30 m) were established along an elevational gradient that extended from 564 to 1807 m. Samples of aerial bark from dead and living trees, aerial litter (dead but still attached plant parts), ground litter (fallen dead plant parts) and ground bark (fragments of fallen bark) were collected from these plots, which encompassed all of the major vegetation types found in the Park. Four hundred forty-seven moist chambers were prepared, and 95.8 % (428) produced some evidence (either fruit bodies or plasmodia) of myxomycetes. A total of 71 species were recorded, with ground litter yielding most (45 species). Aerial litter, aerial bark and ground bark yielded 44, 39 and 37 species, respectively. Species abundance distribution measures (diversity, dominance and similarities) varied among the four microhabitats as well as among the major vegetation types. Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) showed that species distribution patterns were closely related to: (1) the major environmental-complex gradients associated with differences in elevation/temperature/moisture conditions that occur from one locality to another; and (2) the different types of microhabitat.     

Typha × glauca dominance and extended hydroperiod constrain restoration of wetland diversity

Urban wetlands typically have few plant species. In wetlands designed to improve water quality, nutrient-rich water and highly variable water levels often favor aggressive, flood-tolerant plants, such as Typha × glauca (hybrid cattail). At Des Plaines River Wetlands Demonstration Site (Lake Co., IL), we assessed T. × glauca dominance and plant community composition under varying hydroperiods in a complex of eight constructed wetlands. Plots flooded for more than 5 weeks during the growing season tended to be dominated by T. × glauca, while plots flooded fewer days did not. Plots with high cover of T. × glauca had low species richness (negative correlation, R² = 0.72, p < 0.001). However, overall species richness of the wetland complex was high (94 species), indicating that wetlands in urbanizing landscapes can support many plant species where T. × glauca is not dominant. T. × glauca-dominated areas resisted the establishment of a native plant community. Removing T. × glauca and introducing native species increased diversity initially, but did not prevent re-invasion. Although 12 of the 24 species we seeded became established in our cleared plots, T. × glauca rapidly re-invaded. In year 1, T. × glauca regained an average of 11 ramets m⁻², and its density doubled in year 2. The likelihood of planted species surviving decreased as duration of inundation increased, and in both seeded and planted plots, graminoids had greater survivorship through year 2 than forbs across a range of water levels. Within 4 years, however, T. × glauca was the most common plant, present in 92% of the cleared plots. Simply removing T. × glauca and adding propagules to an urban wetland is not sufficient to increase diversity.     

Identifying plant species and communities across environmental gradients in the Western Himalayas: Method development and conservation use

Phytosociological attributes of plant species and associated environmental factors were measured in order to identify the environmental gradients of major plant communities in the Naran Valley, Himalayas. The valley occupies a distinctive geographical setting on the edge of the Western Himalaya near the Hindukush range and supports a high biodiversity; pastoralism is the main land use. There have been no previous quantitative ecological studies in this region. This study was undertaken to (i) analyze and describe vegetation using classification and ordination techniques, (ii) identify environmental gradients responsible for plant community distributions and (iii) assess the anthropogenic pressures on the vegetation and identify priorities for conservation. Phytosociological characteristics of species were measured alongside environmental variables. A total of 198 species from 68 families were quantified at 144 stations along 24 transects across an elevation range of 2450–4100 m. Correspondence Analysis techniques i.e., Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) and Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) were used to determine vegetation–environment relationships. Results show vegetation changes with altitude from moist-cool temperate communities characterized by woody species, to more dry-cold subalpine and alpine herbaceous communities. Plant species diversity is optimal at middle altitudes (2800–3400 m); at lower altitudes (2400–2800 m) it is reduced by anthropogenic impacts and at higher altitudes (3400–4100 m) by shallow soils and high summer grazing pressure. A large number of plant species of conservation concern were identified in the study and an assessment made of the main threats to their survival.