Pyridoxamine, an inhibitor of advanced glycation reactions, also inhibits advanced lipoxidation reactions. Mechanism of action of pyridoxamine

Maillard or browning reactions lead to formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) on protein and contribute to the increase in chemical modification of proteins during aging and in diabetes. AGE inhibitors such as aminoguanidine and pyridoxamine (PM) have proven effective in animal model and clinical studies as inhibitors of AGE formation and development of diabetic complications. We report here that PM also inhibits the chemical modification of proteins during lipid peroxidation (lipoxidation) reactions in vitro, and we show that it traps reactive intermediates formed during lipid peroxidation. In reactions of arachidonate with the model protein RNase, PM prevented modification of lysine residues and formation of the advanced lipoxidation end products (ALEs) N(epsilon)-(carboxymethyl)lysine, N(epsilon)-(carboxyethyl)lysine, malondialdehyde-lysine, and 4-hydroxynonenal-lysine. PM also inhibited lysine modification and formation of ALEs during copper-catalyzed oxidation of low density lipoprotein. Hexanoic acid amide and nonanedioic acid monoamide derivatives of PM were identified as major products formed during oxidation of linoleic acid in the presence of PM. We propose a mechanism for formation of these products from the 9- and 13-oxo-decadienoic acid intermediates formed during peroxidation of linoleic acid. PM, as a potent inhibitor of both AGE and ALE formation, may prove useful for limiting the increased chemical modification of tissue proteins and associated pathology in aging and chronic diseases, including both diabetes and atherosclerosis.     

Site-specific quantitative evaluation of the protein glycation product N6-(2,3-dihydroxy-5,6-dioxohexyl)-L-lysinate by LC-(ESI)MS peptide mapping: evidence for its key role in AGE formation

Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) contribute to various pathologies associated with the general aging process and long-term complications of diabetes. Involvement of alpha-dicarbonyl intermediates in the formation of such compounds is firmly established. We now report on the first unequivocal identification of the dideoxyosone N(6)-(2,3-dihydroxy-5,6-dioxohexyl)-l-lysinate (4) on lysozyme via its quinoxaline derivative N(6)-(2,3-dihydroxy-4-quinoxalin-2-ylbutyl)-l-lysinate (6), formed by reaction of 4 with o-phenylenediamine (OPD). For accurate quantification of the total content of 6 as well as of glucosepane 5 by LC-(ESI)MS, (13)C(6)-labeled reference compounds were independently synthesized; 5 so far is the only established follow-up product of 4. With an overall lysine derivatization quota of 5%, compound 4 is shown to be a quantitatively important Maillard intermediate of which only about 8 per thousand are transformed into the cross-link 5. Hence, the major follow-up products of the highly reactive intermediate 4 are yet unknown. The site-specific quantitative evaluation of aminoketose 1 and quinoxaline 6 by LC-(ESI)MS peptide mapping shows that all lysine moieties in lysozyme are in fact modified by these compounds. If an arginine side chain is adjacent to the lysine moiety, transformation of 1 into 4 seems to be favored. The efficient formation and high reactivity of 4 clearly points to its potential as exogenous or endogenous glycotoxin.     

3-hydroxykynurenine-mediated modification of human lens proteins: structure determination of a major modification using a monoclonal antibody

Tryptophan can be oxidized in the eye lens by both enzymatic and non-enzymatic mechanisms. Oxidation products, such as kynurenines, react with proteins to form yellow-brown pigments and cause covalent cross-linking. We generated a monoclonal antibody against 3-hydroxykynurenine (3OHKYN)-modified keyhole limpet hemocyanin and characterized it using 3OHKYN-modified amino acids and proteins. This monoclonal antibody reacted with 3OHKYN-modified N(alpha)-acetyl lysine, N(alpha)-acetyl histidine, N(alpha)-acetyl arginine, and N(alpha)-acetyl cysteine. Among the several tryptophan oxidation products tested, 3OHKYN produced the highest concentration of antigen when reacted with human lens proteins. A major antigen from the reaction of 3OHKYN and N(alpha)-acetyl lysine was purified by reversed phase high pressure liquid chromatography, which was characterized by spectroscopy and identified as 2-amino-3-hydroxyl-alpha-((5S)-5-acetamino-5-carboxypentyl amino)-gamma-oxo-benzene butanoic acid. Enzyme-digested cataractous lens proteins displayed 3OHKYN-derived modifications. Immunohistochemistry revealed 3OHKYN modifications in proteins associated with the lens fiber cell plasma membrane. The low molecular products (<10,000 Da) isolated from normal lenses after reaction with glucosidase followed by incubation with proteins generated 3OHKYN-derived products. Human lens epithelial cells incubated with 3OHKYN showed intense immunoreactivity. We also investigated the effect of glycation on tryptophan oxidation and kynurenine-mediated modification of lens proteins. The results showed that glycation products failed to oxidize tryptophan or generate kynurenine modifications in proteins. Our studies indicate that 3OHKYN modifies lens proteins independent of glycation to form products that may contribute to protein aggregation and browning during cataract formation.     

Carbohydrate carbonyl mobility--the key process in the formation of alpha-dicarbonyl intermediates

Covalently cross-linked proteins are among the major modifications caused by the advanced Maillard reaction. In the present study, the formation pathway of the dideoxyosone N6-(2,3-dihydroxy-5,6-dioxohexyl)-L-lysine is shown. To elucidate the formation of this glucose-derived dideoxyosone D-lactose (O-beta-D-galp-(1-->4)-D-glcp) and D-glucose-6-phosphate were incubated with lysine in the presence of the trapping reagent o-phenylenediamine (OPD). Synthesis and unequivocal structural characterization were reported for the quinoxalines of the dideoxyosones N6-(5,6-dihydroxy-2,3-dioxohexyl)-L-lysine and N6-(2,3-dihydroxy-4,5-dioxohexyl)-L-lysine, respectively. Additionally, dicarbonyl compounds derived from D-erythrose, D-glycero-D-mannoheptose, and D-gluco-L-talooctose were synthesized and structurally characterized.     

A post-Amadori inhibitor pyridoxamine also inhibits chemical modification of proteins by scavenging carbonyl intermediates of carbohydrate and lipid degradation.

Reactive carbonyl compounds are formed during autoxidation of carbohydrates and peroxidation of lipids. These compounds are intermediates in the formation of advanced glycation end products (AGE) and advanced lipoxidation end products (ALE) in tissue proteins during aging and in chronic disease. We studied the reaction of carbonyl compounds glyoxal (GO) and glycolaldehyde (GLA) with pyridoxamine (PM), a potent post-Amadori inhibitor of AGE formation in vitro and of development of renal and retinal pathology in diabetic animals. PM reacted rapidly with GO and GLA in neutral, aqueous buffer, forming a Schiff base intermediate that cyclized to a hemiaminal adduct by intramolecular reaction with the phenolic hydroxyl group of PM. This bicyclic intermediate dimerized to form a five-ring compound with a central piperazine ring, which was characterized by electrospray ionization-liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry, NMR, and x-ray crystallography. PM also inhibited the modification of lysine residues and loss of enzymatic activity of RNase in the presence of GO and GLA and inhibited formation of the AGE/ALE N(epsilon)-(carboxymethyl)lysine during reaction of GO and GLA with bovine serum albumin. Our data suggest that the AGE/ALE inhibitory activity and the therapeutic effects of PM observed in diabetic animal models depend, at least in part, on its ability to trap reactive carbonyl intermediates in AGE/ALE formation, thereby inhibiting the chemical modification of tissue proteins.     

4-Hydroperoxy-2-nonenal is not just an intermediate but a reactive molecule that covalently modifies proteins to generate unique intramolecular oxidation products

α,β-Unsaturated aldehydes generated during lipid peroxidation, such as 4-oxoalkenals and 4-hydroxyalkenals, can give rise to protein degeneration in a variety of pathological states. Although the covalent modification of proteins by these end products has been well studied, the reactivity of unstable intermediates possessing a hydroperoxy group, such as 4-hydroperoxy-2-nonenal (HPNE), with protein has received little attention. We have now established a unique protein modification in which the 4-hydroperoxy group of HPNE is involved in the formation of structurally unusual lysine adducts. In addition, we showed that one of the HPNE-specific lysine adducts constitutes the epitope of a monoclonal antibody raised against the HPNE-modified protein. Upon incubation with bovine serum albumin, HPNE preferentially reacted with the lysine residues. By employing N(α)-benzoylglycyl-lysine, we detected two major products containing one HPNE molecule per peptide. Based on the chemical and spectroscopic evidence, the products were identified to be the N(α)-benzoylglycyl derivatives of N(ε)-4-hydroxynonanoic acid-lysine and N(ε)-4-hydroxy-(2Z)-nonenoyllysine, both of which are suggested to be formed through mechanisms in which the initial HPNE-lysine adducts undergo Baeyer-Villiger-like reactions proceeding through an intramolecular oxidation catalyzed by the hydroperoxy group. On the other hand, using an HPNE-modified protein as the immunogen, we raised a monoclonal antibody against the HPNE-modified protein and identified one of the HPNE-specific lysine adducts, N(ε)-4-hydroxynonanoic acid-lysine, as an intrinsic epitope of the monoclonal antibody. Furthermore, we demonstrated that the HPNE-specific epitopes were produced not only in the oxidized low density lipoprotein in vitro but also in the atherosclerotic lesions. These results indicated that HPNE is not just an intermediate but also a reactive molecule that could covalently modify proteins in biological systems.     

Effect of phosphate on the kinetics and specificity of glycation of protein

The glycation (nonenzymatic glycosylation) of several proteins was studied in various buffers in order to assess the effects of buffering ions on the kinetics and specificity of glycation of protein. Incubation of RNase with glucose in phosphate buffer resulted in inactivation of the enzyme because of preferential modification of lysine residues in or near the active site. In contrast, in the cationic buffers, 3-(N-morpholino)propane-sulfonic acid and 3-(N-tris(hydroxymethyl)methyl-amino)-2-hydroxypropanesulfonic acid, the kinetics of glycation of RNase were decreased 2- to 3-fold, there was a decrease in glycation of active site versus peripheral lysines, and the enzyme was resistant to inactivation by glucose. The extent of Schiff base formation on RNAse was comparable in the three buffers, suggesting that phosphate, bound in the active site of RNase, catalyzed the Amadori rearrangement at active site lysines, leading to the enhanced rate of inactivation of the enzyme. Phosphate catalysis of glycation was concentration-dependent and could be mimicked by arsenate. Phosphate also stimulated the rate of glycation of other proteins, such as lysozyme, cytochrome c, albumin, and hemoglobin. As with RNase, phosphate affected the specificity of glycation of hemoglobin, resulting in increased glycation of amino-terminal valine versus intrachain lysine residues. 2,3-Diphosphoglycerate exerted similar effects on the glycation of hemoglobin, suggesting that inorganic and organic phosphates may play an important role in determining the kinetics and specificity of glycation of hemoglobin in the red cell. Overall, these studies establish that buffering ions or ligands can exert significant effects on the kinetics and specificity of glycation of proteins.     

Glycation of amino groups in protein. Studies on the specificity of modification of RNase by glucose

Ribonuclease A has been used as a model protein for studying the specificity of glycation of amino groups in protein under physiological conditions (phosphate buffer, pH 7.4, 37 degrees C). Incubation of RNase with glucose led to an enhanced rate of inactivation of the enzyme relative to the rate of modification of lysine residues, suggesting preferential modification of active site lysine residues. Sites of glycation of RNase were identified by amino acid analysis of tryptic peptides isolated by reverse-phase high pressure liquid chromatography and phenylboronate affinity chromatography. Schiff base adducts were trapped with Na-BH3CN and the alpha-amino group of Lys-1 was identified as the primary site (80-90%) of initial Schiff base formation on RNase. In contrast, Lys-41 and Lys-7 in the active site accounted for about 38 and 29%, respectively, of ketoamine adducts formed via the Amadori rearrangement. Other sites reactive in ketoamine formation included N alpha-Lys-1 (15%), N epsilon-Lys-1 (9%), and Lys-37 (9%) which are adjacent to acidic amino acids. The remaining six lysine residues in RNase, which are located on the surface of the protein, were relatively inactive in forming either the Schiff base or Amadori adduct. Both the equilibrium Schiff base concentration and the rate of the Amadori rearrangement at each site were found to be important in determining the specificity of glycation of RNase.     

Determination of dideoxyosone precursors of AGEs in human lens proteins

Dideoxyosones (DDOs) are intermediates in the synthesis of advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs), such as pentosidine and glucosepane. Although the formation of pentosidine and glucosepane in the human lens has been firmly established, the formation of DDOs has not been demonstrated. The aim of this study was to develop a reliable method to detect DDOs in lens proteins. A specific DDO trapping agent, biotinyl-diaminobenzene (3,4-diamino-N-(3-[5-(2-oxohexahydro-1H-thieno[3,4-d]imidazol-4-yl)pentanoyl]aminopropyl)benzamide) (BDAB) was added during in vitro protein glycation or during protein extraction from human lenses. In vitro glycated human lens protein showed strong reaction in monomeric and polymeric crosslinked proteins by Western blot and ELISA. Glycation of BSA in the presence of BDAB resulted in covalent binding of BDAB to the protein and inhibited pentosidine formation. Mass spectrometric analysis of lysozyme glycated in the presence of BDAB showed the presence of quinoxalines at lysine residues at positions K1, K33, K96, and K116. The ELISA results indicated that cataractous lens proteins contain significantly higher levels of DDO than non-cataractous lenses (101.9±67.8 vs. 31.7±19.5AU/mg protein, p<0.0001). This study provides first direct evidence of DDO presence in human tissue proteins and establishes that AGE crosslink synthesis in the human lens occurs via DDO intermediates.     

Proteomic analysis of the site specificity of glycation and carboxymethylation of ribonuclease

Proteomic analysis using electrospray liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (ESI-LC-MS) has been used to compare the sites of glycation (Amadori adduct formation) and carboxymethylation of RNase and to assess the role of the Amadori adduct in the formation of the advanced glycation end-product (AGE), N(epsilon)-(carboxymethyl)lysine (CML). RNase (13.7 mg/mL, 1 mM) was incubated with glucose (0.4 M) at 37 degrees C for 14 days in phosphate buffer (0.2 M, pH 7.4) under air. On the basis of ESI-LC-MS of tryptic peptides, the major sites of glycation of RNase were, in order, K41, K7, K1, and K37. Three of these, in order, K41, K7, and K37 were also the major sites of CML formation. In other experiments, RNase was incubated under anaerobic conditions (1 mM DTPA, N2 purged) to form Amadori-modified protein, which was then incubated under aerobic conditions to allow AGE formation. Again, the major sites of glycation were, in order, K41, K7, K1, and K37 and the major sites of carboxymethylation were K41, K7, and K37. RNase was also incubated with 1-5 mM glyoxal, substantially more than is formed by autoxidation of glucose under experimental conditions, but there was only trace modification of lysine residues, primarily at K41. We conclude the following: (1) that the primary route to formation of CML is by autoxidation of Amadori adducts on protein, rather than by glyoxal generated on autoxidation of glucose; and (2) that carboxymethylation, like glycation, is a site-specific modification of protein affected by neighboring amino acids and bound ligands, such as phosphate or phosphorylated compounds. Even when the overall extent of protein modification is low, localization of a high proportion of the modifications at a few reactive sites might have important implications for understanding losses in protein functionality in aging and diabetes and also for the design of AGE inhibitors.     

Isolation and characterization of a new advanced glycation endproduct of dehydroascorbic acid and lysine

Proteins are subject of posttranslational modification by sugars and their degradation products in vivo. The process is often referred as glycation. L-Dehydroascorbic acid (DHA), an oxidation product of L-ascorbic acid (vitamin C), is known as a potent glycation agent. A new product of modification of lysine epsilon -amino group by DHA was discovered as a result of the interaction between Boc-Lys and dehydroascorbic acid. The chromatographic and spectral analyses revealed that the structure of the product was 1-(5-ammonio-5-carboxypentyl)-3-oxido-4-(hydroxymethyl)pyridinium. The same compound was isolated from DHA modified calf lens protein after hydrolysis and chromatographic separation. The study confirmed that L-erythrulose is an important intermediate of modification of proteins by DHA. The structure of the reported product and in vitro experiments suggested that L-erythrulose could further transform to L-threose, L-erythrose and glycolaldehyde under conditions similar to physiological. The present study revealed that the modification of epsilon -amino groups of lysine residues by DHA is a complex process and could involve a number of reactive carbonyl species.     

Age-dependent accumulation of N epsilon-(carboxymethyl)lysine and N epsilon-(carboxymethyl)hydroxylysine in human skin collagen

N epsilon-(Carboxymethyl)lysine (CML) is formed on oxidative cleavage of carbohydrate adducts to lysine residues in glycated proteins in vitro [Ahmed et al. (1988) J. Biol. Chem. 263, 8816-8821; Dunn et al. (1990) Biochemistry 29, 10964-10970]. We have shown that, in human lens proteins in vivo, the concentration of fructose-lysine (FL), the Amadori adduct of glucose to lysine, is constant with age, while the concentration of the oxidation product, CML, increases significantly with age [Dunn et al. (1989) Biochemistry 28, 9464-9468]. In this work we extend our studies to the analysis of human skin collagen. The extent of glycation of insoluble skin collagen was greater than that of lens proteins (4-6 mmol of FL/mol of lysine in collagen versus 1-2 mmol of FL/mol of lysine in lens proteins), consistent with the lower concentration of glucose in lens, compared to plasma. In contrast to lens, there was a slight but significant age-dependent increase in glycation of skin collagen, 33% between ages 20 and 80. As in lens protein, CML, present at only trace levels in neonatal collagen, increased significantly with age, although the amount of CML in collagen at 80 years of age, approximately 1.5 mmol of CML/mol of lysine, was less than that found in lens protein, approximately 7 mmol of CML/mol of lysine. The concentration of N epsilon-(carboxymethyl)hydroxylysine (CMhL), the product of oxidation of glycated hydroxylysine, also increased with age in collagen, in parallel with the increase in CML, from trace levels at infancy to approximately 5 mmol of CMhL/mol of hydroxylysine at age 80.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Amides are novel protein modifications formed by physiological sugars

The Maillard reaction, or nonenzymatic browning, proceeds in vivo, and the resulting protein modifications (advanced glycation end products) have been associated with various pathologies. Despite intensive research only very few structures have been established in vivo. We report here for the first time N(6)-[2-[(5-amino-5-carboxypentyl)amino]-2-oxoethyl]lysine (GOLA) and N(6)-glycoloyllysine (GALA) as prototypes for novel amide protein modifications produced by reducing sugars. Their identity was confirmed by independent synthesis and coupled liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry. Model reactions with N(alpha)-t-butoxycarbonyl-lysine showed that glyoxal and glycolaldehyde are immediate precursors, and reaction pathways are directly linked to N(epsilon)-carboxymethyllysine via glyoxal-imine structures. GOLA, the amide cross-link, and 1,3-bis(5-amino-5-carboxypentyl)imidazolium salt (GOLD), the imidazolium cross-link, share a common intermediate. The ratio of GOLA to GOLD is greater when glyoxal levels are low at constant lysine concentrations. GOLA and GALA formation from the Amadori product of glucose and lysine depends directly upon oxidation. With the advanced glycation end product inhibitors aminoguanidine and pyridoxamine we were able to dissect oxidative fragmentation of the Amadori product as a second mechanism of GOLA formation exactly coinciding with N(epsilon)-carboxymethyllysine synthesis. In contrast, the formation of GALA appears to depend solely upon glyoxal-imines. After enzymatic hydrolysis GOLA was found at 66 pmol/mg of brunescent lens protein. This suggests amide protein modifications as important markers of pathophysiological processes.     

Molecular basis of maillard amide-advanced glycation end product (AGE) formation in vivo

The Maillard reaction in vivo entails alteration of proteins or free amino acids by non-enzymatic glycation or glycoxidation. The resulting modifications are called advanced glycation end products (AGEs) and play a prominent role in various pathologies, including normoglycemic uremia. Recently, we established a new class of lysine amide modifications in vitro. Now, human plasma levels of the novel amide-AGEs N(6)-acetyl lysine, N(6)-formyl lysine, N(6)-lactoyl lysine, and N(6)-glycerinyl lysine were determined by means of LC-MS/MS. They were significantly higher in uremic patients undergoing hemodialysis than in healthy subjects. Model reactions with N(1)-t-butoxycarbonyl-lysine under physiological conditions confirmed 1-deoxy-d-erythro-hexo-2,3-diulose as an immediate precursor. Because formation of N(6)-formyl lysine from glucose responded considerably to the presence of oxygen, glucosone was identified as another precursor. Comparison of the in vivo results with the model experiments enabled us to elucidate possible formation pathways linked to Maillard chemistry. The results strongly suggest a major participation of non-enzymatic Maillard mechanisms on amide-AGE formation pathways in vivo, which, in the case of N(6)-acetyl lysine, parallels enzymatic processes.     

The formation of reactive intermediate(s) of glucose 6-phosphate and lysine capable of rapidly reacting with DNA

Glucose has been shown to react nonenzymatically in vitro with DNA, to form products with spectral properties similar to those observed with the nonenzymatic glycosylation of proteins in vivo. The incubation in vitro of glucose or glucose 6-phosphate with f1 phage DNA results in a time- and concentration-dependent loss of transfection efficiency. It has also been shown that incubation in vitro of pBR322 DNA with glucose 6-phosphate prompts a loss in transformation capability as well as gross DNA alterations. In the present communication, we have investigated a model reaction of glucose 6-phosphate with the amino groups of lysine to form reactive intermediates which are capable of forming covalent adducts with DNA. The preincubation of glucose 6-phosphate and [3H]lysine leads to a time- and concentration-dependent formation of reactive intermediates. These intermediates, which accumulate with time, can subsequently react with single- or double-stranded DNA to form acid-stable complexes. Studies done with synthetic polynucleotides suggest low reactivity of the intermediate with thymidine. The formation of the reactive intermediates is saturated by the addition of excess unlabeled lysine. Once formed the intermediates are insensitive to the addition of aminoguanidine and to reduction by sodium borohydride. The chemical reactions between sugars and lysine reported here and the reactivity of that product with DNA provide a model for exploring the classes of DNA damage that may contribute to the loss of DNA function during aging.     

Active glycation in neurofibrillary pathology of Alzheimer disease: N(epsilon)-(carboxymethyl) lysine and hexitol-lysine.

Advanced glycation end products are a diverse class of posttranslational modifications, stemming from reactive aldehyde reactions, that have been implicated in the pathogenesis of a number of degenerative diseases. Because advanced glycation end products are accelerated by, and result in formation of, oxygen-derived free radicals, they represent an important component of the oxidative stress hypothesis of Alzheimer disease (AD). In this study, we used in situ techniques to assess N(epsilon)-(Carboxymethyl)lysine (CML), the predominant advanced glycation end product that accumulates in vivo, along with its glycation-specific precursor hexitol-lysine, in patients with AD as well as in young and aged-matched control cases. Both CML and hexitol-lysine were increased in neurons, especially those containing intracellular neurofibrillary pathology in cases of AD. The increase in hexitol-lysine and CML in AD suggests that glycation is an early event in disease pathogenesis. In addition, because CML can result from either lipid peroxidation or advanced glycation, while hexitol-lysine is solely a product of glycation, this study, together with studies demonstrating the presence of 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal adducts and pentosidine, provides evidence of two distinct oxidative processes acting in concert in AD neuropathology. Our findings support the notion that aldehyde-mediated modifications, together with oxyradical-mediated modifications, are critical pathogenic factors in AD.     

Characterization and detection of lysine-arginine cross-links derived from dehydroascorbic acid

Covalently cross-linked proteins are among the major modifications caused by the advanced Maillard reaction. So far, the chemical nature of these aggregates is largely unknown. L-dehydroascorbic acid (DHA, 5), the oxidation product of L-ascorbic acid (vitamin C), is known as a potent glycation agent. Identification is reported for the lysine-arginine cross-links N6-[2-[(4-amino-4-carboxybutyl)amino]-5-(2-hydroxyethyl)-3,5-dihydro-4H-imidazol-4-ylidene]-L-lysine (9), N6-[2-[(4-amino-4-carboxybutyl)amino]-5-(1,2-dihydroxyethyl)-3,5-dihydro-4H-imidazol-4-ylidene]-L-lysine (11), and N6-[2-[(4-amino-4-carboxybutyl)amino]-5-[(1S,2S)-1,2,3-trihydroxypropyl]-3,5-dihydro-4H-imidazol-4-ylidene]-L-lysine (13). The formation pathways could be established starting from dehydroascorbic acid (5), the degradation products 1,3,4-trihydroxybutan-2-one (7, L-erythrulose), 3,4-dihydroxy-2-oxobutanal (10, L-threosone), and L-threo-pentos-2-ulose (12, L-xylosone) were proven as precursors of the lysine-arginine cross-links 9, 11, and 13. Products 9 and 11 were synthesized starting from DHA 5, compound N6-[2-[(4-amino-4-carboxybutyl)amino]-5-[(1S,2R)-1,2,3-trihydroxypropyl]-3,5-dihydro-4H-imidazol-4-ylidene]-L-lysine (16) via the precursor D-erythro-pentos-2-ulose (15). The present study revealed that the modification of lysine and arginine side chains by DHA 5 is a complex process and could involve a number of reactive carbonyl species.     

Conventional antibody against Nepsilon-(carboxymethyl)lysine (CML) shows cross-reaction to Nepsilon-(carboxyethyl)lysine (CEL): immunochemical quantification of CML with a specific antibody

Immunological strategies for the detection of N(epsilon)-(carboxymethyl)lysine (CML), one of the major antigenic structures of advanced glycation end products (AGE), are widely applied to demonstrate the contribution of CML to the pathogeneses of diabetic complications and atherosclerosis. Recent studies have indicated that methylglyoxal (MG), which is generated intracellularly through the Embden-Meyerhof and polyol pathways, reacts with proteins to form MG-derived AGE structures such as N(epsilon)-(carboxyethyl)lysine (CEL). In order to accurately measure the CML contents of the proteins by means of an immunochemical method, we prepared CML-specific antibodies since conventionally prepared polyclonal anti-CML antibody and monoclonal anti-CML antibody (6D12) cross-reacted with CEL. To prepare polyclonal CML-specific antibody, CML-keyhole limpet hemocyanin (CML-KLH) were immunized with rabbit and CEL-reactive antibody was removed by CEL-conjugated affinity chromatography. Monoclonal antibody specific for CML (CMS-10) was obtained by immunization with CML-KLH, followed by successive screening according to CML-bovine serum albumin (CML-BSA)-positive but CEL-BSA-negative criteria. Both polyclonal CML-specific antibody and CMS-10 significantly reacted with CML-proteins but not with CEL-proteins. It is likely therefore that these antibodies can recognize the difference of one methyl group between CML and CEL. Moreover, CMS-10 significantly reacted with BSA modified with several aldehydes and its reactivity was highly correlated with the CML content, which was determined by high performance liquid chromatography, whereas 6D12 showed a low correlation. These results indicate that CMS-10 can be used to determine the CML contents of modified proteins in a more specific way.     

Lysine-derived fluorophores formed by autoxidation of linoleic acid

To obtain an insight into fluorophores formed in proteins during lipid peroxidation, a lysine residue analogue (N(alpha)-hippuryllysine) was exposed to autoxidation of linoleic acid catalyzed by iron(III)-EDTA and L-ascorbic acid. The reaction predominantly produced two fluorescent products, N,N'-bis[5-(N-benzoylglycylamino)-5-carboxypentyl]-2-hydroxy-2-pentyl-3-imino-l,2-dihydropyrrole (II) and N,N'-bis[5-(N-benzoylglycylamino)-5-carboxypentyl]-2-hydroxy-2-(7-carboxyheptyl)-3-imino-1,2-dihydropyrolle (I).     

Glycation of MP26 and MP22 in bovine lens membranes.

Alkali treated membranes were isolated from mature bovine lenses and incubated with different sugars for 3 weeks to study the effect of glycation on the lens intrinsic membrane proteins, MP26 and MP22. The obtained results show that a) [1-14C] ascorbic acid (ASA) was able to glycate the intrinsic membrane proteins as rapidly as soluble lens proteins; b) on 15% acrylamide gels in SDS, glucose, fructose, galactose and ribose exhibited low activity for crosslinking membrane proteins; whereas ASA, dehydroascorbate (DHA), diketogulonate (DKG), xylosone and threose, all showed not only the formation of protein multimers, but also highly crosslinked products, which did not enter the spacer gel; c) except glycated MP22, all of the crosslinks of MP26 or MP22, and also the glycated MP26, showed cross reactivity with polyclonal MP26 antibody; d) the extent of crosslinking correlated with an equal loss of lysine and arginine contents by amino acid analysis.