Ultraviolet and green receptors in principal eyes of jumping spiders

Spectral sensitivities of cells in principal eyes of the jumping spider Phidippus reqius were measured using techniques of intracellular recording. Three types of cells were found. UV cells had peak sensitivities at 370 nm and were over 4 log units less sensitive at wavelengths longer than 460 nm. Green-sensitive cells had spectral sensitivities which were well fit by nomogram curves peaking at 532 nm. UV-green cells had dual peaks of sensitivity at about 370 and 525 nm, but the ratios of UV-to-green sensitivities varied over a 40: 1 range from cell to cell. Moreover, responses of UV-green cells to flashes of UV light were slower than to flashes of green light. Segregation of receptor types into the known layers of receptors in these eyes could not be shown. It is concluded that jumping spiders have the potential for dichromatic color vision.     

UV-Green Iridescence Predicts Male Quality during Jumping Spider Contests

Animal colour signals used in intraspecies communications can generally be attributed to a composite effect of structural and pigmentary colours. Notably, the functional role of iridescent coloration that is ‘purely’ structural (i.e., absence of pigments) is poorly understood. Recent studies reveal that iridescent colorations can reliably indicate individual quality, but evidence of iridescence as a pure structural coloration indicative of male quality during contests and relating to an individual’s resource-holding potential (RHP) is lacking. In age- and size-controlled pairwise male-male contests that escalate from visual displays of aggression to more costly physical fights, we demonstrate that the ultraviolet-green iridescence of Cosmophasis umbratica predicts individual persistence and relates to RHP. Contest initiating males exhibited significantly narrower carapace band separation (i.e., relative spectral positions of UV and green hues) than non-initiators. Asymmetries in carapace and abdomen brightness influenced overall contest duration and escalation. As losers retreated upon having reached their own persistence limits in contests that escalated to physical fights, losers with narrower carapace band separation were significantly more persistence. We propose that the carapace UV-green iridescence of C. umbratica predicts individual persistence and is indicative of a male’s RHP. As the observed UV-green hues of C. umbratica are ‘pure’ optical products of a multilayer reflector system, we suggest that intrasexual variations in the optical properties of the scales’ chitin-air-chitin microstructures are responsible for the observed differences in carapace band separations.     

Why is it advantageous for animals to detect celestial polarization in the ultraviolet? Skylight polarization under clouds and canopies is strongest in the UV

The perception of skylight polarization in the ultraviolet (UV) by many insect species for orientation purposes is rather surprising, because both the degree of linear polarization and the radiance of light from the clear sky are considerably lower in the UV than in the blue or green. In this work we call this the "UV-sky-pol paradox". Although in the past, several attempts have been made to resolve this paradox, none of them was convincing. We present here a possible quantitative resolution to the paradox. We show by a model calculation that if the air layer between a cloud and a ground-based observer is partly sunlit, the degree of linear polarization p of skylight originating from the cloudy region is highest in the UV, because in this spectral range the unpolarized UV-deficient cloudlight dilutes least the polarized light scattered in the air beneath the cloud. Similarly, if the air under foliage is partly sunlit, p of downwelling light from the canopied region is maximal in the UV, because in this part of spectrum the unpolarized UV-deficient green canopylight dilutes least the polarized light scattered in the air beneath the canopy. Therefore, the detection of polarization of downwelling light under clouds or canopies is most advantageous in the UV, in which spectral range the risk is the smallest that the degree of polarization p is lower than the threshold p(tr) of polarization sensitivity in animals. On the other hand, under clear skies there is no favoured wavelength for perception of celestial polarization, because p of skylight is high enough (p > p(tr)) at all wavelengths. We show that there is an analogy between the detection of UV skylight polarization and the polarotactic water detection in the UV. However, insects perceive skylight polarization by UV or blue or green receptors. The question, why they differ in the spectral channel used for the detection of celestial polarization cannot be answered at the present time, because data are insufficient. Nevertheless, we present here one possible atmospheric optical reason why certain visual systems involved in detecting celestial polarization, are specifically tuned to the UV part of the spectrum.     

Beneficial effects of solar UV‐B radiation on soybean yield mediated by reduced insect herbivory under field conditions

Ultraviolet‐B radiation (UV‐B: 280–315 nm) has damaging effects on cellular components and macromolecules. In plants, natural levels of UV‐B can reduce leaf area expansion and growth, which can lead to reduced productivity and yield. UV‐B can also have important effects on herbivorous insects. Owing to the successful implementation of the Montreal Protocol, current models predict that clear‐sky levels of UV‐B radiation will decline during this century in response to ozone recovery. However, because of climate change and changes in land use practices, future trends in UV doses are difficult to predict. In the experiments reported here, we used an exclusion approach to study the effects of solar UV‐B radiation on soybean crops, which are extensively grown in many areas of the world that may be affected by future variations in UV‐B radiation. In a first experiment, performed under normal management practices (which included chemical pest control), we found that natural levels of UV‐B radiation reduced soybean yield. In a second experiment, where no pesticides were applied, we found that solar UV‐B significantly reduced insect herbivory and, surprisingly, caused a concomitant increase in crop yield. Our data support the idea that UV‐B effects on agroecosystems are the result of complex interactions involving multiple trophic levels. A better understanding of the mechanisms that mediate the anti‐herbivore effect of UV‐B radiation may be used to design crop varieties with improved adaptation to the cropping systems that are likely to prevail in the coming decades in response to agricultural intensification.     

Spectral information as an orientation cue in dung beetles

During the day, a non-uniform distribution of long and short wavelength light generates a colour gradient across the sky. This gradient could be used as a compass cue, particularly by animals such as dung beetles that rely primarily on celestial cues for orientation. Here, we tested if dung beetles can use spectral cues for orientation by presenting them with monochromatic (green and UV) light spots in an indoor arena. Beetles kept their original bearing when presented with a single light cue, green or UV, or when presented with both light cues set 180° apart. When either the UV or the green light was turned off after the beetles had set their bearing in the presence of both cues, they were still able to maintain their original bearing to the remaining light. However, if the beetles were presented with two identical green light spots set 180° apart, their ability to maintain their original bearing was impaired. In summary, our data show that ball-rolling beetles could potentially use the celestial chromatic gradient as a reference for orientation.     

Sun Compass Orientation of Tylos europaeus (Crustacea, Isopoda) Under Artificial Light

To provide a first assessment of the parameters used by adult individuals of the supralittoral isopod Tylos europaeus to recognize the sun as a compass orienting reference, we used the apparatus designed and tested with the amphipod T. saltator. The apparatus reproduces a scenario similar to the natural one (with a false sun and sky illuminated artificially). The scenario produced inside the apparatus is sufficient to induce the isopods to exhibit solar orientation similar to that of conspecifics tested under the natural sun and sky. Nevertheless, this ability depends on some threshold values of illumination of the artificial sun and sky: to obtain a good orientation the irradiance of the artificial sun and sky should be more than 0.4 and 1.3 μW/cm² respectively. When the artificial sky is not illuminated, the individuals show only a photopositive tendency.     

Artificial light and sun compass orientation in the sandhopper Talitrus saltator (Crustacea, Amphipoda)

Experiments on compass orientation under artificial light were conducted with adult individuals of Talitrus saltator. The aim was to reproduce in the laboratory an orientation based on the sun compass corresponding to that recorded in conditions of the true sun and sky. This was obtained by the creation within an opaque Plexiglas dome of a scenario that permitted variation of the brightness of the artificial sky and sun. The results show that it is possible to obtain sun compass orientation corresponding to the natural situation even in an artificial environment. It can be concluded that sandhoppers identify an artificial light source as the sun if the artificial sky is also illuminated and if the intensities of the artificial sun and sky exceed certain threshold values (1.13 and 10 μW cm⁻², respectively). The results of other experiments under the natural blue sky with an artificial sun and with the real sun attenuated are discussed. Accepted: 23 May 1997     

Evidence for instantaneous e-vector detection in the honeybee using an associative learning paradigm

Many insects use the polarization pattern of the sky for obtaining compass information during orientation or navigation. E-vector information is collected by a specialized area in the dorsal-most part of the compound eye, the dorsal rim area (DRA). We tested honeybees' capability of learning certain e-vector orientations by using a classical conditioning paradigm with the proboscis extension reflex. When one e-vector orientation (CS+) was associated with sugar water, while another orientation (CS-) was not rewarded, the honeybees could discriminate CS+ from CS-. Bees whose DRA was inactivated by painting did not learn CS+. When ultraviolet (UV) polarized light (350 nm) was used for CS, the bees discriminated CS+ from CS-, but no discrimination was observed in blue (442 nm) or green light (546 nm). Our data indicate that honeybees can learn and discriminate between different e-vector orientations, sensed by the UV receptors of the DRA, suggesting that bees can determine their flight direction from polarized UV skylight during foraging. Fixing the bees' heads during the experiments did not prevent learning, indicating that they use an 'instantaneous' algorithm of e-vector detection; that is, the bees do not need to actively scan the sky with their DRAs ('sequential' method) to determine e-vector orientation.     

Automatic greenhouse insect pest detection and recognition based on a cascaded deep learning classification method

Inspection of insect sticky paper traps is an essential task for an effective integrated pest management (IPM) programme. However, identification and counting of the insect pests stuck on the traps is a very cumbersome task. Therefore, an efficient approach is needed to alleviate the problem and to provide timely information on insect pests. In this research, an automatic method for the multi-class recognition of small-size greenhouse insect pests on sticky paper trap images acquired by wireless imaging devices is proposed. The developed algorithm features a cascaded approach that uses a convolutional neural network (CNN) object detector and CNN image classifiers, separately. The object detector was trained for detecting objects in an image, and a CNN classifier was applied to further filter out non-insect objects from the detected objects in the first stage. The obtained insect objects were then further classified into flies (Diptera: Drosophilidae), gnats (Diptera: Sciaridae), thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) and whiteflies (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), using a multi-class CNN classifier in the second stage. Advantages of this approach include flexibility in adding more classes to the multi-class insect classifier and sample control strategies to improve classification performance. The algorithm was developed and tested for images taken by multiple wireless imaging devices installed in several greenhouses under natural and variable lighting environments. Based on the testing results from long-term experiments in greenhouses, it was found that the algorithm could achieve average F₁-scores of 0.92 and 0.90 and mean counting accuracies of 0.91 and 0.90, as tested on a separate 6-month image data set and on an image data set from a different greenhouse, respectively. The proposed method in this research resolves important problems for the automated recognition of insect pests and provides instantaneous information of insect pest occurrences in greenhouses, which offers vast potential for developing more efficient IPM strategies in agriculture.     

秋末苏南茶园昆虫的群落组成及其趋色性

苏南地区名茶荟萃,而虫害历来较为严重。秋末选丹阳市一片无公害茶园,使用纯白、桃红、墨绿、果绿、湖蓝、天蓝、素馨黄、芽绿、土黄、桔黄、大红和紫色12种粘性色板诱虫。结果表明:① 4日内捕获7目42科85种30455头昆虫,其中优势类群是同翅目、膜翅目和双翅目,三者个体数分别占总个体数的86.5%、8.8%和2.5%。②主要害虫是假眼小绿叶蝉和茶蚜,分别占总个体数的15%和71.5%。③ 捕获的中华蜜蜂占总个体数8.2%。④捕获天敌昆虫1034头,其中,瓢虫类32头,占3.1%,主要种类是异色瓢虫和黄斑盘瓢虫;草蛉类582头,占56.3%,包括中华草蛉、大草蛉和丽草蛉;伞裙追寄蝇和蚕饰腹寄蝇等5种寄生蝇类111头,占10.7%;门氏食蚜蝇和黑带食蚜蝇等7种食蚜蝇类110头,占10.6%;螟蛉瘤姬蜂和花胸姬蜂等5种姬蜂类、茶尺蠖绒茧蜂和单白绵绒茧蜂等7种茧蜂类个体数分别占3.9%和9.4%。⑤ 芽绿、素馨黄和桔黄色板显著地引诱假眼小绿叶蝉和茶蚜;芽绿、素馨黄色板显著地引诱姬蜂和茧蜂;芽绿、土黄和果绿色板明显地引诱草蛉类;果绿、天蓝和紫色色板引诱较多的蝇类和蚊类等双翅目昆虫;素馨黄引诱的各类昆虫种数最多;纯白板上各类昆虫的多样性指数最大,表明其对许多昆虫都有引诱效应。秋末时节查明即将越冬的害虫和天敌昆虫种类、数量和益害比、以及优势种害虫和优势种天敌数量,探明多种色彩引诱益、害虫的差异,对于有效实施无公害封园防治,以压低越冬基数有重要意义。     

Cloud observations for the statistical evaluation of the UV index at Toowoomba,Australia

The development of a unique statistical model for the estimation of the UV index for all sky conditions with solar zenith angles of 60° or less is reported. The model was developed based on available data from an integrated whole-sky automated sky camera and UV spectral irradiance measurement system that was collected every 5 min when the equipment was operational over a period of 1 year. The final model does not include terms directly associated with solar radiation, but rather employs terms, and interactions between these terms, including the parameters of sky cover, solar obstruction, and cloud brightness. The correlation between the estimations of the model and the measured values was 0.81. The developed model was evaluated on a data set spanning 5 months that had not been employed in the development of the model. The correlation for this new data set was 0.50, which increased to 0.65 for the cases when the clouds were considered to be a contributor to UV enhancement above that of a cloud-free day.     

A quantitative method for evaluating bivariate flow cytometric data obtained using monoclonal antibodies to bromodeoxyuridine.

A method is presented for analyzing data from bivariate analysis of cell populations exposed to bromodeoxyuridine and subsequently examined both for the presence of BrdUrd and for the cellular DNA content. It is shown that certain features may be defined in the bivariate data which are constant independent both of cell type and, within limits, experimental variability. These landmark features include the ratio of red, DNA, fluorescence of G2 + M cells to G1 cells, the ratio of green fluorescence corresponding to the non-specific binding of unlabeled G2 + M cells to unlabeled G1 cells, and the distribution of green fluorescence in unlabeled cells. The landmarks make it possible to standardize rules for establishing the separation line between-labeled and unlabeled cells as required in these experiments to obtain estimates of cytokinetic parameters. Values obtained for the DNA synthesis time and the potential doubling time which result from different decision rules for distinguishing labeled from unlabeled are compared in two murine tumor lines. The potential doubling time, but not the DNA synthesis time is shown to depend sensitively on the separation line. Suggestions are presented for analyzing clinical data with this procedure.     

Experience‐related reorganization of giant synapses in the lateral complex: Potential role in plasticity of the sky‐compass pathway in the desert ant Cataglyphis fortis

Cataglyphis desert ants undergo an age‐related polyethism from interior workers to relatively short‐lived foragers with remarkable visual navigation capabilities, predominantly achieved by path integration using a polarized skylight‐based sun compass and a stride‐integrating odometer. Behavioral and physiological experiments revealed that the polarization (POL) pattern is processed via specialized UV‐photoreceptors in the dorsal rim area of the compound eye and POL sensitive optic lobe neurons. Further information about the neuronal substrate for processing of POL information in the ant brain has remained elusive. This work focuses on the lateral complex (LX), known as an important relay station in the insect sky‐compass pathway. Neuroanatomical results in Cataglyphis fortis show that LX giant synapses (GS) connect large presynaptic terminals from anterior optic tubercle neurons with postsynaptic GABAergic profiles of tangential neurons innervating the ellipsoid body of the central complex. At the ultrastructural level, the cup‐shaped presynaptic structures comprise many active zones contacting numerous small postsynaptic profiles. Three‐dimensional quantification demonstrated a significantly higher number of GS (～13%) in foragers compared with interior workers. Light exposure, as opposed to age, was necessary and sufficient to trigger a similar increase in GS numbers. Furthermore, the increase in GS numbers was sensitive to the exclusion of UV light. As previous experiments have demonstrated the importance of the UV spectrum for sky‐compass navigation in Cataglyphis, we conclude that plasticity in LX GS may reflect processes involved in the initial calibration of sky‐compass neuronal circuits during orientation walks preceding active foraging. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Develop Neurobiol 76: 390–404, 2016     

A distinct layer of the medulla integrates sky compass signals in the brain of an insect

Mass migration of desert locusts is a common phenomenon in North Africa and the Middle East but how these insects navigate is still poorly understood. Laboratory studies suggest that locusts are able to exploit the sky polarization pattern as a navigational cue. Like other insects locusts detect polarized light through a specialized dorsal rim area (DRA) of the eye. Polarization signals are transmitted through the optic lobe to the anterior optic tubercle (AOTu) and, finally, to the central complex in the brain. Whereas neurons of the AOTu integrate sky polarization and chromatic cues in a daytime dependent manner, the central complex holds a topographic representation of azimuthal directions suggesting a role as an internal sky compass. To understand further the integration of sky compass cues we studied polarization-sensitive (POL) neurons in the medulla that may be intercalated between DRA photoreceptors and AOTu neurons. Five types of POL-neuron were characterized and four of these in multiple recordings. All neurons had wide arborizations in medulla layer 4 and most, additionally, in the dorsal rim area of the medulla and in the accessory medulla, the presumed circadian clock. The neurons showed type-specific orientational tuning to zenithal polarized light and azimuth tuning to unpolarized green and UV light spots. In contrast to neurons of the AOTu, we found no evidence for color opponency and daytime dependent adjustment of sky compass signals. Therefore, medulla layer 4 is a distinct stage in the integration of sky compass signals that precedes the time-compensated integration of celestial cues in the AOTu.     

E-Vector orientation in bees

Summary If an insect is able to determine the direction of polarization in any point of the sky, this ability does not in itself guarantee that the insect can orientate unambiguously. Such would only be the case, if every point in the sky had its own exclusive direction of polarization. In thee-vector pattern of the sky, however, each direction of polarization is found at many different points. For compass orientation the insect has therefore to use some information on the geometry of thee-vector pattern in the sky. In general, eache-vector occurs twice at a given elevation (Fig. 1). The angular separation between the positions of identicale-vectors depends on the elevations of thee-vectors above the horizon and on the height of the sun. Except at sunrise and sunset, 180°.If a bee is trained to fly in a certain direction to a food source, the direction of its waggle dance on a horizontal comb points directly towards the goal (provided that the bee is able to view the sky). However, if the bee is only allowed to view a singlee-vector in the sky (or a single artificially adjustede-vector), it should perform ambiguous orientation. One expects the bee to prefer two dance directions separated by the proper angular distance . One of these two dance directions should point at the food source.The bees indeed dance in two directions. However, there are two unexpected results: (1) The angular distance between the two preferred directions invariably amounts to =180°. (2) One of the preferred directions points closely, but not exactly at the goal. What one can deduce from these single-e-vector tests is that the bee uses a rather generalized internal representation of thee-vector pattern in the sky. This paper describes the generale-vector characteristic applied by a dancing bee that only views a singlee-vector in the sky (diameter of the celestial patch or the artificially polarized light source 10°). This generale-vector characteristic of the bee (Fig. 9) more closely fits the meane-vector distribution near the zenith thane-vector distributions in other parts of the sky (Fig. 11).This article is dedicated to Prof. Dr. H. Autrum in honor of his seventieth birthdayThe research has been supported by Swiss National Science Foundation Grant 3.814.72, continued by Grant 3.529.75, and by the Academy of Science and Literature at Mainz. We would like to thank Dr. R. Schinz (Purdue University) for cooperation and fruitful discussions as well as Mrs. V. Güttinger, Mrs. A. Rossel-Jäckle, and Miss A. Blischke for technical assistance.     

Coding of azimuthal directions via time-compensated combination of celestial compass cues

Many animals use the sun as a reference for spatial orientation [1-3]. In addition to sun position, the sky provides two other sources of directional information, a color gradient [4] and a polarization pattern [5]. Work on insects has predominantly focused on celestial polarization as an orientation cue [6, 7]. Relying on sky polarization alone, however, poses the following two problems: E vector orientations in the sky are not suited to distinguish between the solar and antisolar hemisphere of the sky, and the polarization pattern changes with changing solar elevation during the day [8, 9]. Here, we present neurons that overcome both problems in a locust's brain. The spiking activity of these neurons depends (1) on the E vector orientation of dorsally presented polarized light, (2) on the azimuthal, i.e., horizontal, direction, and (3) on the wavelength of an unpolarized light source. Their tuning to these stimuli matches the distribution of a UV/green chromatic contrast as well as the polarization of natural skylight and compensates for changes in solar elevation during the day. The neurons are, therefore, suited to code for solar azimuth by concurrent combination of signals from the spectral gradient, intensity gradient, and polarization pattern of the sky.     

Insect perception of ambient ultraviolet-B radiation

Solar ultraviolet‐B radiation (UV‐B, 290–315 nm) has a strong influence on the interactions between plants and animal consumers. Field studies in various ecosystems have shown that the intensity of insect herbivory increases when the UV‐B spectral band of solar radiation is experimentally attenuated using filters. This effect of UV‐B on insect herbivory has been attributed to UV‐B‐induced changes in the characteristics of plant tissues, and to direct damaging effects of UV‐B photons on the animals. We tested for effects of UV‐B radiation on insect behaviour using field experiments with the thrips Caliothrips phaseoli. When placed in a ‘choice’ tunnel under natural daylight, these insects showed a clear preference for low‐UV‐B environments, and this preference could not be accounted for by differences between environments in total irradiance. These results provide the first evidence of ambient UV‐B photoperception in an insect, challenging the idea that animals are unable to detect variations in the narrow UV‐B component of solar radiation.     

Interaction of behavioral and autonomic thermoregulation in cold exposed pigeons

Summary When bees dance on a horizontal comb in an enclosed hive, they set the direction of their waggle runs with reference to an artificial light source. If this light contains wavelengths long enough to excite the blue or green receptors in the bee's eye, the dance direction relative to the lamp is the same as it would be relative to the sun. But if the emitted light excites only the UV receptors the bee dances in the opposite direction. Evidently the bee interprets the UV-colored light source as a part of the sky with azimuth opposite to that of the sun.     

Central neural coding of sky polarization in insects

Many animals rely on a sun compass for spatial orientation and long-range navigation. In addition to the Sun, insects also exploit the polarization pattern and chromatic gradient of the sky for estimating navigational directions. Analysis of polarization-vision pathways in locusts and crickets has shed first light on brain areas involved in sky compass orientation. Detection of sky polarization relies on specialized photoreceptor cells in a small dorsal rim area of the compound eye. Brain areas involved in polarization processing include parts of the lamina, medulla and lobula of the optic lobe and, in the central brain, the anterior optic tubercle, the lateral accessory lobe and the central complex. In the optic lobe, polarization sensitivity and contrast are enhanced through convergence and opponency. In the anterior optic tubercle, polarized-light signals are integrated with information on the chromatic contrast of the sky. Tubercle neurons combine responses to the UV/green contrast and e-vector orientation of the sky and compensate for diurnal changes of the celestial polarization pattern associated with changes in solar elevation. In the central complex, a topographic representation of e-vector tunings underlies the columnar organization and suggests that this brain area serves as an internal compass coding for spatial directions.     

View-based navigation in Hymenoptera: multiple strategies of landmark guidance in the approach to a feeder

In order to analyse how landmarks guide the last stages of an insect's approach to a goal, we recorded many flights of individual wasps and honeybees as they flew to an inconspicuous feeder on the ground that was marked by one or by two nearby landmarks. An individual tends to approach the feeder from a constant direction, flying close to the ground. Its body is oriented in roughly the same horizontal direction during the approach so that the feeder and landmarks are viewed over a narrow range of directions. Consequently, when the insect arrives at the feeder, the landmarks take up a standard position on the retina. Three navigational strategies govern the final approach. The insect first aims at a landmark, treating it as a beacon. Secondly, bees learn the appearance of a landmark with frontal retina and they associate with this stored view a motor trajectory which brings them from the landmark sufficiently close to the goal that it can be reached by image matching. Insects then move so as to put the landmark in its standard retinal position. Image matching is shown to be accomplished by a control system which has as set points the standard retinal position of the landmark and some parameter related to its retinal size. Accepted: 1 March 1997