Home range,range overlap,and site fidelity of introduced Siberian chipmunks in a suburban French forest

Home range size, range overlap, and multiyear site fidelity were investigated for introduced Siberian chipmunks (Tamias sibiricus) in a French suburban forest from bimonthly trapping sessions for 4 years (2004–2007). Annual home range sizes (100% minimum convex polygon, ±SE) were estimated from 39 trapping histories of 28 different adult residents. Males (N = 13, 1.86 ± 0.32 ha) had a home range 2.5 times larger than females (N = 26, 0.71 ± 0.08 ha); a male home range included significantly more trapping centers (arithmetic mean of capture locations) of females (5.5 ± 0.7) than of males (2.3 ± 0.5). Chipmunks exhibited strong multiyear site fidelity: mean distance between annual trapping centers of individuals trapped over two successive years was small (N = 82, 26 ± 2 m) compared to the largest home range length (ranging from 36 to 281 m); overlap between annual home range sizes of residents was 84 ± 5% (N = 11). These results improve our understanding of the space occupation of this unknown species in a novel environment.     

Morphological and Genetic Characterization of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Saimiri boliviensis</Emphasis>

The taxonomy of Saimiri is controversial because morphological characteristics, traditionally used for identification, are insufficient to distinguish species and subspecies. Genetic studies of specimens become relevant for captive management, especially considering their frequently unknown geographical origin. We analyzed phenotypic and genetic parameters in Saimiri spp. in Argentinean zoological gardens and biological stations to provide a more accurate taxonomic identification. We studied 27 males and 19 females of Saimiri spp. The cytogenetic analysis in mitotic metaphases corroborated a modal number of 2N = 44, XX/XY, and FN = 75 for males and FN = 76 for females. G- and C-bands, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and the pelage coloration pattern of all the specimens corresponded to Saimiri boliviensis boliviensis. We characterized for the first time the sperm cell morphology and morphometry (mean ± SE): total length: 71.39 ± 5.40 μm; head length: 5.71 ± 0.81 μm; head width: 3.76 ± 0.70 μm; acrosome length: 3.70 ± 0.82 μm; midpiece length: 12.20 ± 2.22 μm. Researchers can use the characterization of the sperm morphology as another parameter for taxonomic identification that, together with cytogenetic and molecular ones, would allow a more precise identification of individual Saimiri boliviensis boliviensis.     

Home ranges of raccoon dogs (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Nyctereutes procyonoides</Emphasis>, Gray, 1834) in Southern Brandenburg,Germany

The raccoon dog Nyctereutes procyonoides, a medium-sized canid, is a representative of the East Asian fauna and has been introduced to Europe during the years 1928–1953. Today, this alien carnivore is a widespread species in Eastern Europe, Finland and Germany. In our study, we determined home range sizes of raccoon dogs in an agricultural landscape in Northeast Germany between 2001 and 2004 by very high frequency radio tracking. Those data are useful for estimation of predator densities in respect to conservation of biodiversity and also to develop models for disease and parasite transmission. Yearly average home range sizes were calculated as 95% fixed kernel: 1.83 km² ± 1.54 and as 50% fixed kernel (=core areas): 0.50 km² ± 0.49. We documented seasonal differences in home range sizes as well as overlapping of home ranges from 0.65% up to 67%. Some individuals’ home ranges recorded during the same season showed a clear shifting between different years. Abandoned badger dens, located in the core areas of raccoon dogs home ranges, were important during the whole year and particularly used in the winter period. Therefore, distribution of those dens had some influence on the spatial distribution of raccoon dogs in the study area. Based on mean annual home range size, we estimated the mean local population density during winter as 1.1 individuals per square kilometre and during summer as 4.90 individuals per square kilometre.     

Effects of Seasonal Folivory and Frugivory on Ranging Patterns in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rhinopithecus roxellana</Emphasis>

The distribution of food resources in time and space may affect the diet, ranging pattern, and social organization of primates. We studied variation in ranging patterns in a group of Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) over winter and summer in response to variation in their diet in the Qingmuchuan Nature Reserve, China. There was a clear diet shift from highly folivorous in winter to highly frugivorous in summer. The home range was 8.09 km² in summer and 7.43 km² in winter, calculated via the 95% kernel method. Corresponding to the diet shift, the focal group traveled significantly longer distances in summer (mean 1020 ± 69 m/d) than in winter (mean 676 ± 53 m/d); the daily range was also significantly greater in summer (mean 0.27 ± 0.02 km²/d) than in winter (mean 0.21 ± 0.01 km²/d). There was no significant variation in home range size between winter and summer, and the monkeys did not use geographically distinct ranges in summer and winter. However, overlap in the actual activity area and core range between winter and summer was only 0.13 km², representing 4.4% of the summer core area and 5.3% of the winter core area. Differences were apparent between summer and winter ranging patterns: In summer, the group traveled repeatedly and uninterruptedly across its home range and made 3 circles of movement along a fixed route in 31 d; in winter, the activity area was composed of 3 disconnected patches, and the focal group stayed in each patch for an average of 8 successive days without traveling among patches. Winter range use was concentrated on mixed evergreen and deciduous forest patches where leaves and fruits were available, whereas the summer range pattern correlates significantly positively with the distribution of giant dogwood (Cornus controversa) fruits. Thus it appears that the diet shift of Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys between winter and summer caused the monkeys to use their home range in different ways, supporting the hypothesis that food resources determine primate ranging patterns.     

Alginate,mannitol, phenolic compounds and biological activities of two range-extending brown algae, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sargassum mangarevense</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Turbinaria ornata</Emphasis> (Phaeophyta: Fucales), from Tahiti (French Polynesia)

This study deals with two range-extending brown algae from Tahitian coral reefs, Sargassum mangarevense and Turbinaria ornata; their alginate properties, mannitol and phenolic contents, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities were determined. Turbinaria ornata showed the richest alginate content with the highest extraction yield (19.2 ± 1.3% dw). Their alginates also exhibited the highest viscosity (50 ± 18 mPa.s), but the M:G ratios (mannuronic acid to glucuronic acid) of alginates (1.25–1.42) were similar in both species. Alginate yield displayed spatial variations, but no significant seasonal changes. The highest mannitol content was found in S. mangarevense (12.2 ± 2.1% dw) during the austral winter. With respect to other tropical Fucales, both algae exhibited also a high phenolic content (2.45–2.85% dw) with significant spatio-temporal variations. Furthermore, high antioxidant activity and activity against Staphylococcus aureus were also detected in extracts. According to these preliminary results, these two range-extending algae are of key interest in numerous industrial areas.     

Effect of seawater temperature on the productivity of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Laminaria japonica</Emphasis> in the Uwa Sea,southern Japan

Recent studies on global climate change report that increase in seawater temperature leads to coastal ecosystem change, including coral bleaching in the tropic. In order to assess the effect of increased seawater temperature on a temperate coastal ecosystem, we studied the inter-annual variation in productivity of Laminaria japonica using long-term oceanographic observations for the Uwa Sea, southern Japan. The annual productivity estimates for L. japonica were 2.7 ± 2.5 (mean ± SD) kg wet wt. m⁻¹ (length of rope) (2003/2004), 1.0 ± 0.6 kg wet wt. m⁻¹ (2004/2005) and 12.1 ± 12.5 kg wet wt. m⁻¹ (2005/2006). Our previous study using the same methodology at the same locality reported that the productivity was estimated for the 2001/2002 (33.3 ± 15.2 kg wet wt. m⁻¹) and 2002/2003 (34.0 ± 8.7 kg wet wt. m⁻¹) seasons. Productivity in 2003/2004 and 2004/2005 was significantly lower than in years 2001/2002, 2002/2003 and 2005/2006. A comparison of oceanographic conditions among the 5 years revealed the presence of threshold seawater temperature effects. When the average seawater temperature during the first 45 days of each experiment exceeded 15.5°C, productivity was reduced to about 10 % of that in cooler years. Moreover the analysis of growth and erosion rates indicates that when the seawater temperature was over 17.5°C, erosion rate exceeded growth rate. Thus, an increase of seawater temperature of just 1°C during winter drastically reduces the productivity of L. japonica in the Uwa Sea.     

Hyper production of cellulase-free xylanase by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Thermomyces lanuginosus</Emphasis> SSBP on bagasse pulp and its application in biobleaching

A cellulase-free xylanase production by Thermomyces lanuginosus SSBP using bagasse pulp was examined under submerged (SmC) and solid-state cultivation (SSC). Higher level of xylanase activity (19,320 ± 37 U g⁻¹ dried carbon source) was obtained in SSC cultures than in SmC (1,772 ± 15 U g⁻¹ dried carbon source) after 120 h with 10% inoculum. The biobleaching efficacy of crude xylanase was tested on bagasse pulp, and the maximum brightness of 46.1 ± 0.06% was observed with 50 U of crude xylanase per gram of pulp, which was 3.8 points higher than the brightness of untreated samples. Reducing sugars (26 ± 0.1 mg g⁻¹) and UV-absorbing lignin-derived compounds in the pulp filtrates were observed as maximum in 50 U of crude xylanase-treated samples. T. lanuginosus SSBP has potential applications due to its high productivity of xylanase and its efficiency in pulp bleaching.     

Empirical development of strategy for the control of invasive American mink by trapping

American mink (Neovison vison) are an ecologically damaging invasive species in Europe and Iceland where attempts to control them typically rely on trapping. The focus and efficiency of trapping can be improved by using track-recording mink rafts to identify where mink are present before traps are deployed. This paper describes development of operating strategy for the use of mink rafts with traps, to optimise capture efficiency against costs. We worked sequentially on two unconnected chalk streams in central southern England. On 17 km of the River Itchen, we operated a very high density of rafts (5.9 per km) through spring and summer to generate multiple detections of each mink present. All rafts recording mink tracks were armed with traps, and captured mink were euthanased. After removal of mink until no further detections were made, we calculated that each mink was detected 5.3 times at 5.1 raft sites, and on this basis, rationalised raft density to a standard one per kilometer of river. We set a trap deployment time (10 days) that encompassed the longest observed lapse from detection to capture (7 days), and extended the check interval for rafts in monitoring mode from 1 week to 2 weeks to further reduce costs. These operating rules were then deployed for 12 months on the 44-km River Wylye beginning in autumn. Rafts indicated that the river was cleared of mink through the capture of seven individuals, each of which was detected 3.6 times at 2.7 raft sites, on average, and was trapped within 6 days of detection giving a response time of less than 20 days. Although these operating rules may need refinement for other environments, we believe this is a sound basis for effective mink control.     

Ranging of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rhinopithecus bieti</Emphasis> in the Samage Forest,China. I. Characteristics of Range Use

We quantified the home range and explored the style of ranging of black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) in the subtropical-temperate montane Samage Forest (part of Baimaxueshan Nature Reserve) in the vicinity of Gehuaqing. Over 14.5 mo, we took positional records of the study band via a GPS receiver at 30-min intervals, and found that they covered an area of 32 km². Over a 10-yr period, the group even ranged in an area of 56 km², which is among the largest home range estimates for any primate. The large home range was probably due to the combined effects of large group size (N > 400) and forest heterogeneity, with seasonally food-rich areas interspersed with less valuable areas. The subjects did not use their home range uniformly: 29% of the grid cells had more location records than expected based on a uniform distribution, thus representing a core area, albeit a disjunct one. A continuous 1-mo group follow in the fall revealed that the band traveled on average 1.62 km/d and that days of concentrated use of a particular forest block were followed by more extensive marches. Neither climate nor human disturbance parameters correlate significantly with monthly estimates of the group’s home range size. Even though there is no significant correlation between temporal availability of plant phenophases and range size, our observations implicate temporal and spatial availability of food as a determinant of home range use of the focal group. Winter, spring, and summer home ranges are equally large: 18.2, 17.8, and 18.6 km², respectively. Home range decreased markedly in fall (9.3 km²), probably because the band obtained sufficient food resources (fruit) in a smaller area. The large winter range is best attributed to the exploitation of dispersed clumped patches of mature fruits. Cyril C. Grueter and∙Dayong Li contributed equally to the paper.     

Continuous cultures of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pseudomonas putida</Emphasis> mt-2 overcome catabolic function loss under real case operating conditions

The long-term performance and stability of Pseudomonas putida mt-2 cultures, a toluene-sensitive strain harboring the genes responsible for toluene biodegradation in the archetypal plasmid pWW0, was investigated in a chemostat bioreactor functioning under real case operating conditions. The process was operated at a dilution rate of 0.1 h⁻¹ under toluene loading rates of 259 ± 23 and 801 ± 78 g m⁻³ h⁻¹ (inlet toluene concentrations of 3.5 and 10.9 g m⁻³, respectively). Despite the deleterious effects of toluene and its degradation intermediates, the phenotype of this sensitive P. putida culture rapidly recovered from a 95% Tol⁻ population at day 4 to approx. 100% Tol⁺ cells from day 13 onward, sustaining elimination capacities of 232 ± 10 g m⁻³ h⁻¹ at 3.5 g Tol m⁻³ and 377 ± 13 g m⁻³ h⁻¹ at 10.9 g Tol m⁻³, which were comparable to those achieved by highly tolerant strains such as P. putida DOT T1E and P. putida F1 under identical experimental conditions. Only one type of Tol⁻ variant, harboring a TOL-like plasmid with a 38.5 kb deletion (containing the upper and meta operons for toluene biodegradation), was identified.     

Carrageenan of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eucheuma isiforme</Emphasis> (Solieriaceae,Rhodophyta) from Nicaragua

The yield and physicochemical properties of native and alkali treated carrageenan from Eucheuma isiforme harvested from the Nicaraguan coast were investigated. The native carrageenan yield was 57.2% of dry weight and decreased to 43.5% when the alga was alkali treated. Native carrageenan viscosities showed significant differences between native (144.6 ± 3.3 cPs) and treated carrageenan (113.9 ± 2.6 cPs) (p < 0.01). Alkali treatment reduced carrageenan sulphate content by 19.3% and increased 3,6 AG content by 13%. Alkali-treated carrageenan formed very weak gels in 1.5% solutions (<50 g cm⁻²). Chemical analysis and FTIR spectra revealed that Eucheuma isiforme from Nicaragua is a good source of relatively pure iota-carrageenan with sufficient quality to serve as a substitute for traditional iota-carrageenan sources.     

Plantlet regeneration from leaf derived callus of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Vanilla planifolia</Emphasis> Andr.

Vanilla planifolia is a tropical orchid mainly known for the aromatic flavor of its cured pods. Callus cultures were initiated from leaf and nodal explants of V. planifolia. Leaf explants showed better callus initiation than the nodal explants with callus biomass production maximal when cultured on Murashige and Skoog (MS) basal medium containing 4.52 mM 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid and 2.22 mM benzyladenine (BAP). Callus transferred to MS basal medium supplemented with 13.32 μM BAP, and 13.43 μM naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) showed superior growth response and produced 14.0 ± 1.0 shoots with an average length of 3.6 ± 0.1 cm after 40 d. Subsequent transfer of the proliferated shootlets to MS basal medium supplemented with 8.88 μM BAP and 8.08 μM NAA produced 12.3 ± 0.14 plantlets with an average height of 3.6 cm ± 0.10 cm. All plantlets produced profuse rooting within 35–40 d after transfer to half-strength MS basal medium supplemented with NAA in combination with indole-3-acetic acid. Rooted plantlets were transferred for hardening, with 80% of the plantlets becoming successfully established in the field. Potentially, more than 100,000 plantlets could be produced within eight subcultures from callus obtained from leaf explant through the methods described here.     

Heterologous expression and characterization of Choline Oxidase from the soil bacterium Arthrobacter nicotianae

In the course of a microbial screening of soil samples for new oxidases, different enrichment strategies were carried out. With choline as the only carbon source, a microorganism was isolated and identified as Arthrobacter nicotianae. From this strain, a gene coding for a choline oxidase was isolated from chromosomal DNA. This gene named codA was cloned in Escherichia coli BL21-Gold and the protein (An_CodA) heterologously overexpressed as a soluble intracellular protein of 59.1 kDa. Basic biochemical characterization of purified protein revealed a pH optimum of 7.4 and activity over a broad temperature range (15–70 °C). Specific activities were determined toward choline chloride (4.70 ± 0.12 U/mg) and the synthetic analogs bis(2-hydroxyethyl)-dimethylammonium chloride (0.05 ± 0.45 × 10^–2 U/mg) and tris-(2-hydroxyethyl)-methylammonium methylsulfate (0.01 ± 0.12 × 10^–2 U/mg). With increasing number of oxidizable groups, a significant decrease in activity was noted. Determination of kinetic parameters in atmorspheric oxygen resulted in K _M = 1.51 ± 0.09 mM and V _max = 42.73 ± 0.42 mU/min for choline chloride and K _M = 4.77 ± 0.76 mM and V _max = 48.40 ± 2.88 mU/min for the reaction intermediate betaine aldehyde respectively. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopic analysis of the products formed during the enzyme reaction with choline chloride showed that in vitro the intermediate betaine aldehyde exists also free in solution.     

Habitat selection of an expanding beaver (Castor fiber) population in central and upper Morava River basin

Habitat selectivity by European beaver (Castor fiber L., 1758) was studied in 226 km of river channels during their colonization of the Morava River basin (the Czech Republic), which had not been occupied by beavers for hundreds of years. The colonization started after initial reintroductions in 1991 and 1992. Annual increases in colonization of the river system from 1995 to 2007 were 15.5 ± 9.4 SD km year⁻¹ and varied greatly between these years (min 0 km, max 33 km). Beavers appeared to be following a dispersal pattern, in which distant sites are often colonized before close-by sites. The selection of habitat variables during the colonization process varied. In the early phase of colonization, there were many areas with optimal habitat that were not occupied by beavers, and habitat selection appeared chaotic. After this early phase, the most significant habitat variable related to beaver occupation was shown to be the presence of willow (Salix spp.) species. In the later phases, the beaver population expanded into suboptimal habitat. Settlement distance from roads, railways, and urbanized areas became less. When comparing the generalized linear models, a model from the winter of 2003/2004 had the best overall accuracy and showed excellent agreement among observed and fitted values (Cohen’s κ = 0.75). The model suggests that beavers established their home ranges at first in optimal habitat, which had not been occupied before and then subsequently in suboptimal/marginal areas.     

Edible oil degradation by using yeast coculture of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rhodotorula pacifica</Emphasis> ST3411 and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cryptococcus laurentii</Emphasis> ST3412

To develop a microbial treatment of edible oil-contaminated wastewater, microorganisms capable of rapidly degrading edible oil were screened. The screening study yielded a yeast coculture comprising Rhodotorula pacifica strain ST3411 and Cryptococcus laurentii strain ST3412. The coculture was able to degrade efficiently even at low contents of nitrogen ([NH₄–N] = 240 mg/L) and phosphorus sources ([PO₄–P] = 90 mg/L). The 24-h degradation rate of 3,000 ppm mixed oils (salad oil/lard/beef tallow, 1:1 w/w) at 20°C was 39.8% ± 9.9% (means ± standard deviations of eight replicates). The highest degradation rate was observed at 20°C and pH 8. In a scaled-up experiment, the salad oil was rapidly degraded by the coculture from 671 ± 52.0 to 143 ± 96.7 ppm in 24 h, and the degradation rate was 79.4% ± 13.8% (means ± standard deviations of three replicates). In addition, a repetitive degradation was observed with the cell growth by only pH adjustment without addition of the cells.     

Influence of age,nutritional status and season on the reproductive system in wild male mink (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Neovison vison</Emphasis>)

The objectives of this study on the reproductive system of wild male mink (Neovison vison) were to determine the influence of age, nutritional status and season on reproductive traits and to produce baseline data that may be used in environmental monitoring programmes. The 117 male mink included in the study were killed by hunters all over Sweden (from latitude 56° N to 67° N) during August to the end of April from 2005 to 2008. The weights of penis, testes, and epididymides were lower, the anogenital distance was shorter and the diameter of seminiferous tubules was less in juveniles compared with adult mink (p < 0.0001–p = 0.0024). There was a positive effect (p < 0.05) of nutritional status on the baculum length and on the anogenital distance, but not on any of the other reproductive traits. The season of sampling influenced the penis, testes and epididymes weights and the diameter of seminiferous tubules (p = 0.008–p < 0.0001). During spring, 86% of the mink had sperm in their epididymides, whereas the corresponding figure for autumn was 3%; in addition, when the average diameter of the tubules reached 138 μm, sperm were present in the epididymides. Sperm morphology was analysed in 29 of the mink, and the percentage of morphologically defect sperm were generally low. Taken together, this study suggests that when assessing male reproductive data in wild mink populations, season must be taken into account as well as whether the individuals are juvenile or adult. In contrast, the nutritional status seems not to be of any major significance.     

Growth and survival performance of the gametophyte of Gigartina skottsbergii (Rhodophyta, Gigartinales) under defined nutrient conditions in laboratory culture

Gigartina skottsbergii is a commercially important carrageenan producer that has been suffering severe extraction pressure in Chile’s Magellan Region and Cape Horn Archipelago since 1998. In order to create baseline information for its cultivation and repopulation, we studied the effects of agricultural fertilizers on growth of G. skottsbergii early developmental stages. The culture media utilized were: a) seawater + Bayfoland, b) seawater + Superphosphate, c) seawater + Urea, d) seawater + Provasoli and e) seawater as a control. The culture conditions were: a) 12L:12D photoperiod; b) temperature 8 ± 1°C and c) irradiance at 45 μmol photons m⁻² s⁻¹. After 60 days, higher relative growth rates between treatments were observed; the treatments that included Bayfoland and Provasoli showed greater growth (382 ± 55 and 378 ± 50 μm, respectively,) compared to Superphosphate (88 ± 16 μm), control (78 ± 10 μm) and Urea (70 ± 11 μm) treatments, after 81 days. The Urea treatment and the control had inhibitory effects on G. skottsbergii germlings growth and survival, as evidenced by progressive loss of pigmentation and death after 60 days. These results showed that Bayfoland was an excellent alternative to develop cultures.     

Enhancement of polysaccharides production in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ganoderma lucidum</Emphasis> by the addition of ethyl acetate extracts from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eupolyphaga sinensis</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Catharsius molossus</Emphasis>

To screen stimulators from Chinese medicinal insects for mycelial growth and polysaccharides production of Ganoderma lucidum, G. lucidum was inoculated into the media with and without supplementation of medicinal insect extracts. The ethyl acetate extract of Eupolyphaga sinensis at 55 mg l⁻¹ lead to significant increase in both biomass and intracellular polysaccharides (IPS) concentration from 8.53 ± 0.41 to 14.16 ± 0.43 and 1.28 ± 0.09 to 2.13 ± 0.11 g l⁻¹, respectively. In addition, the ethyl acetate extract of Catharsius molossus at 55 mg l⁻¹ significantly enhanced extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) production; the EPS yield increased from 350.9 ± 14.1 to 475.1 ± 15.3 mg l⁻¹. There were no new components in the two types of polysaccharides obtained by the addition of the insect extracts.     

Development of Spray Dried Liposomal Dry Powder Inhaler of Dapsone

This investigation was undertaken to evaluate practical feasibility of site specific pulmonary delivery of liposomal encapsulated Dapsone (DS) dry powder inhaler for prolonged drug retention in lungs as an effective alternative in prevention of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP) associated with immunocompromised patients. DS encapsulated liposomes were prepared by thin film evaporation technique and resultant liposomal dispersion was passed through high pressure homogenizer. DS nano-liposomes (NLs) were separated by ultra centrifugation and characterized. NLs were dispersed in phosphate buffer saline (PBS) pH 7.4 containing different carriers like lactose, sucrose, and hydrolyzed gelatin, and 15% l-leucine as antiadherent. The resultant dispersion was spray dried and spray dried formulation were characterized to ascertain its performance. In vitro pulmonary deposition was assessed using Andersen Cascade Impactor as per USP. NLs were found to have average size of 137 ± 15 nm, 95.17 ± 3.43% drug entrapment, and zeta potential of 0.8314 ± 0.0827 mV. Hydrolyzed gelatin based formulation was found to have low density, good flowability, particle size of 7.9 ± 1.1 μm, maximum fine particle fraction (FPF) of 75.6 ± 1.6%, mean mass aerodynamic diameter (MMAD) 2.2 ± 0.1 μm, and geometric standard deviation (GSD) 2.3 ± 0.1. Developed formulations were found to have in vitro prolonged drug release up to 16 h, and obeys Higuchi's Controlled Release model. The investigation provides a practical approach for direct delivery of DS encapsulated in NLs for site specific controlled and prolonged release behavior at the site of action and hence, may play a promising role in prevention of PCP.     

Characteristics of Night Sleeping Trees of Proboscis Monkeys (<Emphasis Type="BoldItalic">Nasalis larvatus</Emphasis>) in Sabah,Malaysia

Primates spend about half of their lives at sleeping sites, and their choice of sleeping sites may affect individual survival. We identified a total of 88 trees used by proboscis monkeys (Nasalis larvatus) as night sleeping sites on 16 nights from June to September 2008 in riverine, mangrove, and mixed mangrove–riverine forests along the Garama River, a tributary of the Klias River, in the west of Sabah, Malaysia. We recorded 11 variables for each tree, including the species, physical structure, distance from the riverbank, and connectivity with surrounding trees. We compared sleeping trees with 114 trees with ≥30 cm girth at breast height (GBH) located ≤50 m of the riverbank in 8 botanical plots (total 1 ha). Trees in the plots represented the general vegetation patterns of the study area. Choice of sleeping trees did not depend on the tree species. Although sleeping trees included trees ≤46 m from the river, those closer to riverbanks (5–35 m, n = 76) were more likely to be used as sleeping sites. Compared to the available trees, sleeping trees had larger trunks (mean±SD = 143.6 ± 56.9 cm GBH), and were taller (mean±SD = 34.3 ± 8.1 m), with greater number (median = 6; range = 12) and larger (mean±SD = 24.1 ± 15.2 cm circumference) main branches. They were also located near to other trees, with overlapping branches, creating good arboreal connectivity. Choice of sleeping trees by proboscis monkeys is likely to be related to risks of predation and injury from falling, as well as ease of social interaction and efficiency of locomotion.