Evolution of the allosteric ligand sites of mammalian phosphofructo-1-kinase

Mammalian phosphofructokinase (PFK) has evolved by a process of tandem gene duplication and fusion to yield a protein that is more than double the size of prokaryotic PFKs. On the basis of complete conservation of active site residues in the N-terminal half of the eukaryotic enzyme with those of the bacterial PFKs, one assumes that the active site of the eukaryotic PFK is located in the N-terminal half. Again using sequence comparisons, the four allosteric ligand sites of mammalian PFK have been thought to arise from the duplicated catalytic and regulatory sites of the ancestral PFK. Previous site-directed mutagenesis studies [Li et al. (1999) Biochemistry 38, 16407-16412; Chang and Kemp (2002) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 290, 670-675] have identified the origins of the citrate and fructose 2,6-bisphosphate sites. Here, site-directed mutagenesis of two arginine residues (Arg-433 and Arg-429) of mouse phosphofructokinase is used to identify the ATP inhibitory site, and, by inference, the AMP/ADP site. Mutation of the residues to alanine reduced ATP inhibition in the case of Arg-429 and eliminated ATP inhibition in the instance of Arg-433. The Arg-433 mutant could be inhibited by citrate, and that inhibition could be reversed by fructose 2,6-bisphosphate and cyclic AMP, a high-affinity ligand for the AMP/ADP binding site. It is concluded that the two inhibitors, ATP and citrate, of mammalian PFK interact with sites that have evolved from the duplicated phosphoenolpyruvate/ADP allosteric site of the ancestral PFK. The two sites for activators, fructose 2,6-bisphosphate and AMP or ADP, have evolved from the catalytic site of the ancestral precursor.     

Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate and AMP increase the affinity of the Ascaris suum phosphofructokinase for fructose 6-phosphate in a process separate from the relief of ATP inhibition

Kinetic data have been collected suggesting that heterotropic activation by fructose 2,6-bisphosphate and AMP is a result not only of the relief of allosteric inhibition by ATP but is also the result of an increase in the affinity of phosphofructokinase for fructose 6-phosphate. Modification of the Ascaris suum phosphofructokinase at the ATP inhibitory site produces a form of the enzyme that no longer has hysteretic time courses or homotropic positive (fructose 6-phosphate) cooperativity or substrate inhibition (ATP) (Rao, G.S. J., Wariso, B.A., Cook, P.F., Hofer, H.W., and Harris, B.G. (1987a) J. Biol. Chem. 262, 14068-14073). This form of phosphofructokinase is Michaelis-Menten in its kinetic behavior but is still activated by fructose 2,6-bisphosphate and AMP and by phosphorylation using the catalytic subunit of cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase (cAPK). Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate activates by decreasing KF-6-P by about 15-fold and has an activation constant of 92 nM, while AMP decreases KF-6-P about 6-fold and has an activation constant of 93 microM. Double activation experiments suggest that fructose 2,6-bisphosphate and AMP are synergistic in their activation. The desensitized form of the enzyme is phosphorylated by cAPK and has an increased affinity for fructose 6-phosphate in the absence of MgATP. The increased affinity results in a change in the order of addition of reactants from that with MgATP adding first for the nonphosphorylated enzyme to addition of fructose 6-phosphate first for the phosphorylated enzyme. The phosphorylated form of the enzyme is also still activated by fructose 2,6-bisphosphate and AMP.     

The interaction of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate and AMP with rat hepatic fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase

The binding of the inhibitory ligands fructose 2,6-bisphosphate and AMP to rat liver fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase has been investigated. 4 mol of fructose-2,6-P2 and 4 mol of AMP bind per mol of tetrameric enzyme at pH 7.4. Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate exhibits negative cooperatively as indicated by K'1 greater than K'2 greater than K'3 greater than or equal to K'4 and a Hill plot, the curvature of which indicates K'2/K'1 less than 1, K'3/K'2 less than 1, and K'4/K'3 = 1. AMP binding, on the other hand, exhibits positive cooperativity as indicated by K'1 less than K'2 less than K'3 less than K'4 and an nH of 2.05. Fructose 2,6- and fructose 1,6-bisphosphates enhance the binding of AMP as indicated by an increase in the intrinsic association constants. At pH 9.2, where fructose 2,6-bisphosphate and AMP inhibition of the enzyme are diminished, fructose 2,6-bisphosphate binds with a lower affinity but in a positively cooperative manner, whereas AMP exhibits half-sites reactivity with only 2 mol of AMP bound per mol of tetramer. Ultraviolet difference spectroscopy confirmed the results of these binding studies. The site at which fructose 2,6-bisphosphate binds to fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase has been identified as the catalytic site on the basis of the following. 1) Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate binds with a stoichiometry of 1 mol/mol of monomer; 2) covalent modification of the active site with acetylimidazole inhibits fructose 2,6-bisphosphate binding; and 3) alpha-methyl D-fructofuranoside-1,6-P2 and beta-methyl D-fructofuranoside-1,6-P2, substrate analogs, block fructose 2,6-bisphosphate binding. We propose that fructose 2,6-bisphosphate enhances AMP affinity by binding to the active site of the enzyme and bringing about a conformational change which may be similar to that induced by AMP interaction at the allosteric site.     

A binding study of the interaction of beta-D-fructose 2,6-bisphosphate with phosphofructokinase and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase

The binding of beta-D-fructose 2,6-bisphosphate to rabbit muscle phosphofructokinase and rabbit liver fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase was studied using the column centrifugation procedure (Penefsky, H. S., (1977) J. Biol. Chem. 252, 2891-2899). Phosphofructokinase binds 1 mol of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate/mol of protomer (Mr = 80,000). The Scatchard plots of the binding of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate to phosphofructokinase are nonlinear in the presence of three different buffer systems and appear to exhibit negative cooperativity. Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate and glucose 1,6-bisphosphate inhibit the binding of fructose-2,6-P2 with Ki values of 15 and 280 microM, respectively. Sedoheptulose 1,7-bisphosphate, ATP, and high concentrations of phosphate also inhibit the binding. Other metabolites including fructose-6-P, AMP, and citrate show little effect. Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase binds 1 mol of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate/mol of subunit (Mr = 35,000) with an affinity constant of 1.5 X 10(6) M-1. Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, fructose-6-P, and phosphate are competitive inhibitors with Ki values of 4, 2.7, and 230 microM, respectively. Sedoheptulose 1,7-bisphosphate (1 mM) inhibits approximately 50% of the binding of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate to fructose bisphosphatase, but AMP has no effect. Mn2+, Co2+, and a high concentration of Mg2+ inhibit the binding. Thus, we may conclude that fructose 2,6-bisphosphate binds to phosphofructokinase at the same allosteric site for fructose 1,6-bisphosphate while it binds to the catalytic site of fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase.     

Affinity labeling of Saccharomyces cerevisiae phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase with the 2',3'-dialdehyde derivative of ATP

Saccharomyces cerevisiae phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase [ATP:oxaloacetate carboxy-lyase (transphosphorylating), EC 4.1.1.49] is completely inactivated by the 2',3'-dialdehyde derivative of ATP (oATP) in the presence of Mn2+. The dependence of the pseudo-first-order rate constant on reagent concentration indicates the formation of a reversible complex with the enzyme (Kd = 60 +/- 17 microM) prior to covalent modification. The maximum inactivation rate constant at pH 7.5 and 30 degrees C is 0.200 +/- 0.045 min-1. ATP or ADP plus phosphoenolpyruvate effectively protect the enzyme against inactivation. oATP is a competitive inhibitor toward ADP, suggesting that oATP interacts with the enzyme at the substrate binding site. The partially inactivated enzyme shows an unaltered Km but a decreased V as compared with native phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase. Analysis of the inactivation rate at different H+ concentrations allowed estimation of a pKa of 8.1 for the reactive amino acid residue in the enzyme. Complete inactivation of the carboxykinase can be correlated with the incorporation of about one mole of [8-14C]oATP per mole of enzyme subunit. The results indicate that oATP can be used as an affinity label for yeast phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase.     

Selective thiol group modification renders fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase insensitive to fructose 2,6-bisphosphate inhibition

Limited treatment of native pig kidney fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase (50 microM enzyme subunit) with [14C]N-ethylmaleimide (100 microM) at 30 degrees C, pH 7.5, in the presence of AMP (200 microM) results in the modification of 1 reactive cysteine residue/enzyme subunit. The N-ethylmaleimide-modified fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase has a functional catalytic site but is no longer inhibited by fructose 2,6-bisphosphate. The enzyme derivative also exhibits decreased affinity toward Mg2+. The presence of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate during the modification protects the enzyme against the loss of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate inhibition. Moreover, the modified enzyme is inhibited by monovalent cations, as previously reported (Reyes, A., Hubert, E., and Slebe, J.C. (1985) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 127, 373-379), and does not show inhibition by high substrate concentrations. A comparison of the kinetic properties of native and N-ethylmaleimide-modified fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase reveals differences in some properties but none is so striking as the complete loss of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate sensitivity. The results demonstrate that fructose 2,6-bisphosphate interacts with a specific allosteric site on fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, and they also indicate that high levels of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate inhibit the enzyme by binding to this fructose 2,6-bisphosphate allosteric site.     

Studies on the in vitro phosphorylation of 6-phosphofructo-1-kinase from rat liver

Rat hepatic 6-phosphofructo-1-kinase (ATP:d-fructose-6-phosphate 1-phosphotransferase) was purified to homogeneity and its phosphorylation by the catalytic subunit of the cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase examined. Up to 4 mol of phosphate could be incorporated per mole of tetrameric enzyme, and the phosphate was incorporated into seryl residues. Phosphorylation did not alter the affinity of the enzyme for fructose 6-phosphate or fructose 2,6-bisphosphate. The rate of phosphorylation was enhanced by allosteric activators of 6-phosphofructo-1-kinase such as AMP and fructose 2,6-bisphosphate, and it was decreased by the allosteric inhibitors ATP and H⁺. The phosphopeptide region of the enzyme subunit was susceptible to limited proteolysis by trypsin. Removal of the phosphopeptide did not affect the subunit molecular weight nor the maximum activity of the enzyme, but it enhanced the apparent affinity of the enzyme for both fructose 6-phosphate and fructose 2,6-bisphosphate. It is concluded that the phosphopeptide region of the enzyme subunit is an important determinant of the affinity of the enzyme for its substrate as well as for the allosteric activator fructose 2,6-bisphosphate.     

Binding and regulatory properties of phosphofructokinase from swine kidney

Summary The influence of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate on the activation of purified swine kidney phosphofructokinase as a function of the concentration of fructose 6P, ATP and citrate was investigated. The purified enzyme was nearly completely inhibited in the presence of 2 mM ATP. The addition of 20 nM fructose 2,6-P₂ reversed the inhibition and restored more than 80% of the activity. In the absence of fructose 2,6-P₂ the reaction showed a sigmoidal dependence on fructose 6-phosphate. The addition of 10 nM fructose 2,6-bisphosphate decreased the K_0.5 for fructose 6-phosphate from 3 mM to 0.4 mM in the presence of 1.5 mM ATP. These results clearly show that fructose 2,6-bisphosphate increases the affinity of the enzyme for fructose 6-phosphate and decreases the inhibitory effect of ATP. The extent of inhibition by citrate was also significantly decreased in the presence of fructose 2,6-phosphate.The influence of various effectors of phosphofructokinase on the binding of ATP and fructose 6-P to the enzyme was examined in gel filtration studies. It was found that kidney phosphofructokinase binds 5.6 moles of fructose 6-P per mole of enzyme, which corresponds to about one site per subunit of tetrameric enzyme. The K_D for fructose 6-P was 13 µM and in the presence of 0.5 mM ATP it increased to 27 µM. The addition of 0.3 mM citrate also increased the K_D for fructose 6-P to about 40 µM. AMP, 10 µM, decreased the K_D to 5 µM and the addition of fructose 2,6-phosphate decreased the K_D for fructose 6-P to 0.9 µM. The addition of these compounds did not effect the maximal amount of fructose 6-P bound to the enzyme, which indicated that the binding site for these compounds might be near, but was not identical to the fructose 6-P binding site. The enzyme bound a maximum of about 12.5 moles of ATP per mole, which corresponds to 3 moles per subunit. The K_D of the site with the highest affinity for ATP was 4 µM, and it increased to 15 µM in the presence of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate. The addition of 50 µM fructose 1,6-bisphosphate increased the K_D for ATP to 5.9 µM. AMP increased the K_D to 5.9 µM whereas 0.3 mM citrate decreased the K_D for ATP to about 2 µM. The K_D for AMP, was 2.0 µM; the K_D for cyclic AMP was 1.0 µM; the K_D for ADP was 0.9 µM; the K_D for fructose 1,6-bisphosphate was 0.5 µM; the K_D for citrate was 0.4 µM and the K_D for fructose 2,6-bisphosphate was about 0.1 µM. A maximum of about 4 moles of AMP, ADP and cyclic AMP and fructose 2,6-bisphosphate were bound per mole of enzyme. Taken collectively, these and previous studies (9) indicate that fructose 2,6-phosphate is a very effective activator of swine kidney phosphofructokinase. This effector binds to the enzyme with a very high affinity, and significantly decreases the binding of ATP at the inhibitory site on the enzyme.     

Evidence for the short-term regulation of glycolytic flux in the isolated perfused ventricle of the land snail Helix lucorum (L.) after treatment with serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine)

The glycolytic flux and the regulation of phosphofructokinase (PFK) activity by fructose 2,6-bisphosphate and covalent modification was investigated in isolated ventricles of land snail Helix lucorum perfused with or without serotonin. Serotonin evoked a significant increase in the level of glycolytic intermediates and a threefold increase of glycolytic flux. Studies of saturation curves of PFK for the substrate fructose 6-phosphate at pH similar to intracellular pH of heart muscle showed that serotonin increases enzyme sensitivity to activation by fructose 6-phosphate. Moreover, PFK preparations from ventricles perfused with serotonin exhibited lower K _a values for the activators AMP and fructose 2,6-bisphosphate, compared with the enzyme preparations from serotonin-untreated ventricles. The results suggest that PFK was converted to a more active form when exposed to serotonin. In vitro experiments of PFK phosphorylation showed that the conversion of the enzyme to a more active form was possibly due to its phosphorylation by an endogenous cyclic-AMP-dependent protein kinase. The concentration of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate increased in serotonin-treated ventricles and it exerted a synergistic effect with AMP on the activation of PFK. The bound fraction of glycolytic enzymes increased in the serotonin-treated ventricles only after the 4th min of perfusion. The results suggest that the stimulation of glycolytic flux in the ventricles of H. lucorum in the first minutes of perfusion with serotonin was partly due to the activation of PFK via enzyme molecule covalent modification and to increase of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate. Accepted: 8 April 1997     

Purification and characterization of phosphofructokinase in bovine parotid gland.

1. Phosphofructokinase (PFK) was purified from bovine parotid gland to 750-fold with the specific activity of 67.5 units/mg protein by Cibacron Blue F3GA affinity chromatography, and TSK DEAE-5PW ion-exchange and TSK G4000SW size exclusion chromatographies on HPLC. 2. On gel-filtration, molecular weight of the native PFK was estimated to 400,000. 3. PFK was a heterotetramer composed of three kinds of subunit with molecular weights of 92,000 (C-type), 88,000 (M-type) and 86,000 (L-type), by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Densitometrically, relative amounts of C-, M- and L-type subunit were 1:1:2. 4. Under the physiological conditions of fructose 6-phosphate (Fru-6-P) and ATP concentrations and pH, PFK activity was suppressed and hardly detectable. 5. Fru-6-P relieved PFK from the ATP inhibition. 6. Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate (Fru-2,6-P2) and AMP activated PFK with a reduction of S0.5 for Fru-6-P and subunit cooperativity. Fru-2,6-P2 was more effective than AMP.     

Age-linked alterations in fructose-2,6-bisphosphate-induced modulation of rat muscle phosphofructokinase

Native muscle phosphofructokinase (PFK: EC 2.7.1.11) isolated from 25- and 100-week-old rats was subjected to in vitro studies on fructose-2,6-bisphosphate-induced alterations in the regulatory roles of other key metabolic modulators of this enzyme. Although fructose 2,6-bisphosphate-mediated reversal of citrate inhibition did not show any age-related difference, synergism with glucose-1,6-bisphosphate effect was found to be slightly increased with the enzyme of 100-week-old rats. In addition, apart from a significant decrease in the extent of fructose-2,6-bisphosphate activation, synergism with AMP activation and reversal of ATP and pyridoxal-5-phosphate inhibitions were observed to be decreased markedly with the enzyme of 100-week-old rats in comparison with that of 25-week-old rats. Such age-dependent alterations in muscle PFK provide evidence for conformational modification in this enzyme as a function of age.     

Reciprocal regulation of fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase and phosphofructokinase by fructose 2,6-bisphosphate in swine kidney

The effect of fructose 2,6-P₂, AMP and substrates on the coordinate inhibition of FBPase and activation of PFK in swine kidney has been examined. Fructose 2,6-P₂ inhibits the activity of FBPase and stimulates the activity of PFK in the presence of inhibitory concentrations of ATP. Under similar conditions 2.2 μM fructose 2,6-P₂ was required for 50% inhibition of FBPase and 0.04 μM fructose 2,6-P₂ restored 50% of the activity of PFK. Fructose 2,6-P₂ also enhanced the allosteric activation of PFK by AMP and it increased the extent of inhibition of FBPase by AMP. Fructose 2,6-P₂, AMP and fructose 6-P act cooperatively to stimulate the activity of PFK whereas the same latter two effectors and fructose 1,6-P₂ inhibit the activity of FBPase. Taken collectively, these results suggest that an increase in the intracellular level of fructose 2,6-P₂ during gluconeogenesis could effectively overcome the inhibition of PFK by ATP and simulataneously inactivate FBPase. When the level of fructose 2,6-P₂ is low, a glycolytic state would be restored, since under these conditions PFK would be inhibited by ATP and FBPase would be active.     

On the mechanism by which noradrenaline increases the activity of phosphofructokinase in isolated rat adipocytes.

We confirmed that, as reported by Sooranna & Saggerson [(1982) Biochem. J. 202, 753-758], the affinity of 6-phosphofructo-1-kinase (PFK) for fructose 6-phosphate in an adipocyte extract was increased after incubation of the cells in the presence of noradrenaline. The participation of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate in this kinetic modification could be excluded, because the noradrenaline effect persisted after extensive gel filtration of the extracts and also because the treatment did not cause any change in the concentration of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate in the adipocytes. Oleic acid was found to be another potent positive effector of PFK in an adipocyte extract, with a Ka of 10 microM. Its effect was synergistic with that of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate and AMP, and was counteracted by serum albumin. Palmitic acid had a similar effect. We conclude that the large increase in fatty acid concentration caused by noradrenaline treatment is an explanation for the activation of phosphofructokinase at low fructose 6-phosphate concentrations in an adipocyte extract.     

Relationship between thiol group modification and the binding site for fructose 2,6-bisphosphate on rabbit liver fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase

A thiol group present in rabbit liver fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase is capable of reacting rapidly with N-ethylmaleimide (NEM) with a stoichiometry of one per monomer. Either fructose 1,6-bisphosphate or fructose 2,6-bisphosphate at 500 microM protected against the loss of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate inhibition potential when fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase was treated with NEM in the presence of AMP for up to 20 min. Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate proved more effective than fructose 1,6-bisphosphate when fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase was treated with NEM for 90-120 min. The NEM-modified enzyme exhibited a significant loss of catalytic activity. Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate was more effective than the substrate in protecting against the thiol group modification when the ligands are present with the enzyme and NEM. 100 microM fructose 2,6-bisphosphate, a level that should almost saturate the inhibitory binding site of the enzyme under our experimental conditions, affords only partial protection against the loss of activity of the enzyme caused by the NEM modification. In addition, the inhibition pattern for fructose 2,6-bisphosphate of the NEM-derivatized enzyme was found to be linear competitive, identical to the type of inhibition observed with the native enzyme. The KD for the modified enzyme was significantly greater than that of untreated fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase. Examination of space-filling models of the two bisphosphates suggest that they are very similar in conformation. On the basis of these observations, we suggest that fructose 1,6-bisphosphate and fructose 2,6-bisphosphate occupy overlapping sites within the active site domain of fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase. Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate affords better shielding against thiol-NEM modification than fructose 1,6-bisphosphate; however, the difference between the two ligands is quantitative rather than qualitative.     

Dialdehyde ATP derivative as an affinity modifier of the Na+,K(+)-ATPase active site

Interaction of Na+,K(+)-ATPase from pig kidney in various conformational states with the dialdehyde analogue of ATP, alpha,alpha-(9-adenyl)-alpha'-D-(hydroxymethyl)diglycolaldehyde triphosphate ester (oATP), has been studied. This interaction leads to an enzyme modification which was shown to be of the affinity type according to the following criteria. 1. oATP can be hydrolyzed by Na+,K(+)-ATPase and prevent inhibition of ATPase activity by gamma-[4-(N-2-chloroethyl-N-methylamino)]benzylamide ATP, indicating that it interacts with Na+,K(+)-ATPase in the enzyme active site. 2. oATP irreversibly inhibits ATP-hydrolyzing activity of Na+,K(+)-ATPase; the extent of inactivation is decreased in the presence of 20 mM ATP and depends on the ion composition of the modification medium. The inhibition and ATP protection are maximal in Na+,Mg2(+)-containing buffer. 3. The value of [14C]oATP incorporation into the alpha subunit is proportional to the degree of enzyme inactivation at low (less than 0.1 mM) concentration of oATP and, on extrapolation to complete inhibition, corresponds to incorporation of 1.05 mol reagent/mol alpha subunit. 4. Tryptic hydrolysis of the isolated oATP-modified alpha subunit and subsequent separation of the peptides revealed only one labelled fragment with a molecular mass of about 10 kDa. Localization of the modified fragment in the alpha-subunit polypeptide chain is discussed. A morpholine-like structure was shown to be formed as a result of the modification.     

Comparison of pH-dependent allostery and dissociation for phosphofructokinases from Artemia embryos and rabbit muscle: nature of the enzymes acylated with diethylpyrocarbonate

Purified Artemia phosphofructokinase (PFK), unlike the rabbit skeletal muscle enzyme, displays allosteric kinetics at pH 8, a feature that is functionally significant since the intracellular pH of the developing brine shrimp embryo is greater than or equal to 7.9. Catalytic activity of the Artemia enzyme is severely suppressed by acidic pH even when assayed at the adenylate nucleotide concentrations existing in anaerobic embryos, which is consistent with the lack of a Pasteur effect in these organisms. For both PFK homologs, carbethoxylation reduces the sensitivity to ATP and citrate inhibition, the cooperativity as a function of fructose 6-phosphate concentration and the degree of activation in the presence ADP, AMP, and fructose 2,6-bisphosphate. Considering the role of histidine protonation in PFK allosteric control, the capacity for regulatory kinetics seen at pH 8 in the Artemia enzyme could be explained in part by upward shifts in pKa values of ionizable residues. pH-induced dissociation of tetrameric Artemia PFK into inactive subunits does not occur during catalytic inhibition at acidic pH (pH 6.5, 6 degrees C), as judged by 90 degree light scattering. This observation contrasts markedly with the dimerization and inactivation of rabbit PFK, but is shown not to be unique when compared to other selected PFK homologs. Neither the acute pH sensitivity of Artemia PFK nor the pH-induced hysteretic inactivation displayed by the rabbit enzyme are altered by carbethoxylation, suggesting that ionizable residues involved in these two processes are not the same ones involved in allosteric kinetics.     

Affinity labelling of rat liver acetyl-CoA carboxylase by a 2',3'-dialdehyde derivative of ATP

The interaction of rat liver acetyl-CoA carboxylase with a 2',3'-dialdehyde derivative of ATP (oATP) has been studied. The degree of the enzyme inactivation has been found to depend on the oATP concentration and the incubation time. ATP was proved to be the only substrate which protected the inactivation. Acetyl-CoA did not effect inactivation, while HCO3- accelerated the process. Ki values for oATP in the absence and presence of HCO3- were 0.35 +/- 0.04 and 0.5 +/- 0.06 mM, and those of the modification constant (kmod) were 0.11 and 0.26 min-1 respectively. oATP completely inhibited the [14C]ADP in equilibrium ATP exchange and did not effect the [14C]acetyl-CoA in equilibrium malonyl-CoA exchange. Incorporation of approximately 1 equivalent of [3H]oATP per acetyl-CoA carboxylase subunit has been shown. No recovery of the modified enzyme activity has been observed in Tris or beta-mercaptoethanol containing buffers, and treatment with NaB3H4 has not led to 3H incorporation. The modification elimination of the ATP triphosphate chain. The results indicated the affinity modification of acetyl-CoA carboxylase by oATP. It was shown that the reagent apparently interacted selectively with the epsilon-amino group of lysine in the ATP-binding site to form a morpholine-like structure.     

Inactivation of Escherichia coli glycerol kinase by 5,5'-dithiobis(2-nitrobenzoic acid) and N-ethylmaleimide: evidence for nucleotide regulatory binding sites

Glycerol kinase (EC 2.7.1.30, ATP:glycerol 3-phosphotransferase) from Escherichia coli is inactivated by 5,5'-dithiobis(2-nitrobenzoic acid) (DTNB) and by N-ethylmaleimide (NEM) in 0.1 M triethanolamine at pH 7 and 25 degrees C. The inactivation by DTNB is reversed by dithiothreitol. In the cases of both reagents, the kinetics of activity loss are pseudo first order. The dependencies of the rate constants on reagent concentration show that while the inactivation by NEM obeys second-order kinetics (k2app = 0.3 M-1 s-1), DTNB binds to the enzyme prior to the inactivation reaction; i.e., the pseudo-first-order rate constant shows a hyperbolic dependence on DTNB concentration. Complete inactivation by each reagent apparently involves the modification of two sulfhydryl groups per enzyme subunit. However, analysis of the kinetics of DTNB modification, as measured by the release of 2-nitro-5-thiobenzoate, shows that the inactivation is due to the modification of one sulfhydryl group per subunit, while two other groups are modified 6 and 15 times more slowly. The enzyme is protected from inactivation by the ligands glycerol, propane-1,2-diol, ATP, ADP, AMP, and cAMP but not by Mg2+, fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, or propane-1,3-diol. The protection afforded by ATP or AMP is not dependent on Mg2+. The kinetics of DTNB modification are different in the presence of glycerol or ATP, despite the observation that the degree of protection afforded by both of these ligands is the same.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Age-related changes in subunit composition and regulation of hepatic 6-phosphofructo-1-kinase.

6-Phosphofructo-1-kinase (PFK) isoenzyme pools from livers of fetal, neonatal, young adult (3 months) and aged (24 months) rats were studied. Near-term liver PFK isoenzyme pools were composed of nearly equal quantities of all three subunits. During the 30 days after birth, the total activity increased by 25%; the amount of the L-type, M-type or C-type subunit was increased 3-fold, was unchanged, or was decreased by 80% respectively. In aged rats, compared with young adults, total PFK activity was unchanged, but the L-type, M-type or C-type subunit decreased by 24%, increased by 39%, or increased by 338% respectively. During neonatal maturation, the changing subunit composition of the hepatic isoenzyme pools led to a decreased susceptibility to ATP inhibition, to a greater apparent affinity for fructose 6-phosphate, and to increased sensitivity to fructose 2,6-bisphosphate. Also, these alterations correlated with the measured increases in fructose 2,6-bisphosphate and the reported optimal rate of hepatic glycolysis/gluconeogenesis.     

Inactivation of Escherichia coli glycerol kinase by 5'-[p-(fluorosulfonyl)benzoyl]adenosine: protection by the hydrolyzed reagent

Incubation of Escherichia coli glycerol kinase (EC 2.7.1.30; ATP:glycerol 3-phosphotransferase) with 5'-[p-(fluorosulfonyl)benzoyl]adenosine (FSO2BzAdo) at pH 8.0 and 25 degrees C results in the loss of enzyme activity, which is not restored by the addition of beta-mercaptoethanol or dithiothreitol. The FSO2BzAdo concentration dependence of the inactivation kinetics is described by a mechanism that includes the equilibrium binding of the reagent to the enzyme prior to a first-order inactivation reaction in addition to effects of reagent hydrolysis. The hydrolysis of the reagent has two effects on the observed kinetics. The first effect is deviation from pseudo-first-order kinetic behavior due to depletion of the reagent. The second effect is the novel protection of the enzyme from inactivation due to binding of the sulfonate hydrolysis product. The rate constant for the hydrolysis reaction, determined independently from the kinetics of F- release, is 0.021 min-1 under these conditions. Determinations of the reaction stoichiometry with 3H-labeled FSO2BzAdo show that the inactivation is associated with the covalent incorporation of 1.08 mol of reagent/mol of enzyme subunit. Ligand protection experiments show that ATP, AMP, dAMP, NADH, 5'-adenylyl imidodiphosphate, and the sulfonate hydrolysis product of FSO2BzAdo provide protection from inactivation. The protection obtained with ATP is not dependent on Mg2+. Less protection is obtained with glycerol, GMP, etheno-AMP, and cAMP. No protection is obtained with CMP, UMP, TMP, etheno-CMP, GTP, or fructose 1,6-bisphosphate. The results are consistent with modification by FSO2BzAdo of a single adenine nucleotide binding site per enzyme subunit.