Seasonal variations in nematode assemblages on an Australian temperate ocean beach; the effect of heavy seas and unusually high tides

Free-living nematodes inhabiting a sandy beach exposed to strong ocean waves were sampled at bimonthly intervals for two years. Six 1.3-litre core samples were taken on each occasion down to a depth of 60 cm. The numbers of each species and their status as juveniles, males and females (with or without eggs) was recorded. In the common species all these stages occur throughout the year, but the population increases in the warmer months of the year and falls to a much lower level in winter. Most species are dispersed throughout the sand to a depth of at least 60 cm, but several species where almost always found below the water table at about 60 cm. The faunal composition of the nematode assemblages changed significantly from month to month. Additional samples were taken to monitor the effects of very strong waves coupled with a very high tide which remodelled the beach. The nematode fauna was partially reconstituted by this event. It is concluded that the intertidal beach fauna is a dynamic extension of the near shore sub-littoral nematode fauna.     

Cosmopolitanism of microbial eukaryotes in the global deep seas

Deep sea environments cover more than 65% of the earth’s surface and fulfil a range of ecosystem functions, yet they are also amongst the least known habitats on earth. Whilst the discovery of key geological processes, combined with technological developments, has focused interest onto geologically active areas such as hydrothermal vents, most abyssal biodiversity remains to be discovered ( Danovaro et al. 2010 ). However, as for terrestrial reservoirs of biodiversity, the world’s largest biome is under threat from anthropogenic activities ranging from environmental change to the exploitation of minerals and rare‐earth elements ( Kato et al. 2011 ). It is therefore important to understand the magnitude, nature and composition of deep sea biological communities to inform us of levels of local adaptation, functionality and resilience with respect to future environmental perturbation. In this issue of Molecular Ecology, Bik et al. utilize 454 Roche metagenetic environmental sequencing to assess microbial metazoan community composition and phylogenetic identity across deep sea depth gradients and between ocean basins. The analyses suggest that although the majority of microbial eukaryotic taxa are regionally restricted, a small percentage might maintain cosmopolitan deep sea distributions, and an even smaller fraction appear to be eurybathic (live across depth gradients).     

Phylogenetic composition of bacterioplankton assemblages from the Arctic Ocean

We analyzed the phylogenetic composition of bacterioplankton assemblages in 11 Arctic Ocean samples collected over three seasons (winter-spring 1995, summer 1996, and summer-fall 1997) by sequencing cloned fragments of 16S rRNA genes. The sequencing effort was directed by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) screening of samples and the clone libraries. Sequences of 88 clones fell into seven major lineages of the domain Bacteria: alpha(36%)-, gamma(32%)-, delta(14%)-, and epsilon(1%)-Proteobacteria; Cytophaga-Flexibacter-Bacteroides spp. (9%); Verrucomicrobium spp. (6%); and green nonsulfur bacteria (2%). A total of 34% of the cloned sequences (excluding clones in the SAR11 and Roseobacter groups) had sequence similarities that were <94% compared to previously reported sequences, indicating the presence of novel sequences. DGGE fingerprints of the selected samples showed that most of the bands were common to all samples in all three seasons. However, additional bands representing sequences related to Cytophaga and Polaribacter species were found in samples collected during the summer and fall. Of the clones in a library generated from one sample collected in spring of 1995, 50% were the same and were most closely affiliated (99% similarity) with Alteromonas macleodii, while 50% of the clones in another sample were most closely affiliated (90 to 96% similarity) with Oceanospirillum sp. The majority of the cloned sequences were most closely related to uncultured, environmental sequences. Prominent among these were members of the SAR11 group. Differences between mixed-layer and halocline samples were apparent in DGGE fingerprints and clone libraries. Sequences related to alpha-Proteobacteria (dominated by SAR11) were abundant (52%) in samples from the mixed layer, while sequences related to gamma-proteobacteria were more abundant (44%) in halocline samples. Two bands corresponding to sequences related to SAR307 (common in deep water) and the high-G+C gram-positive bacteria were characteristic of the halocline samples.     

Phylogenetic composition of Arctic Ocean archaeal assemblages and comparison with Antarctic assemblages

Archaea assemblages from the Arctic Ocean and Antarctic waters were compared by PCR-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) analysis of 16S rRNA genes amplified using the Archaea-specific primers 344f and 517r. Inspection of the DGGE fingerprints of 33 samples from the Arctic Ocean (from SCICEX submarine cruises in 1995, 1996, and 1997) and 7 Antarctic samples from Gerlache Strait and Dallman Bay revealed that the richness of Archaea assemblages was greater in samples from deep water than in those from the upper water column in both polar oceans. DGGE banding patterns suggested that most of the Archaea ribotypes were common to both the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic Ocean. However, some of the Euryarchaeota ribotypes were unique to each system. Cluster analysis of DGGE fingerprints revealed no seasonal variation but supported depth-related differences in the composition of the Arctic Ocean Archaea assemblage. The phylogenetic composition of the Archaea assemblage was determined by cloning and then sequencing amplicons obtained from the Archaea-specific primers 21f and 958r. Sequences of 198 clones from nine samples covering three seasons and all depths grouped with marine group I Crenarchaeota (111 clones), marine group II Euryarchaeota (86 clones), and group IV Euryarchaeota (1 clone). A sequence obtained only from a DGGE band was similar to those of the marine group III Euryarchaeota:     

Zooplankton impact on the organic matter flux of Siberian Arctic seas

Role of zooplankton in the organic matter flux was studied in the Kara and Laptev seas using sediment traps in the course of voyage 63 of the Academician Mstislav Keldysh research vessel in August–October 2015. The values of the total flux and that of organic matter were at least an order of magnitude higher than those obtained before the 2000s. A hypothesis is proposed on an increasing influence of the river runoff on the Kara Sea area under climatic changes. Zooplankton contribution into C_org flux varied broadly, averaging 50%. The highest flux values and contribution of zooplankton in them (up to 96%) were recorded in the frontal (gradient) zones.     

Arctic arthropod assemblages in habitats of differing shrub dominance

Recent climate warming in the Arctic has caused advancement in the timing of snowmelt and expansion of shrubs into open tundra. Such an altered climate may directly and indirectly (via effects on vegetation) affect arctic arthropod abundance, diversity and assemblage taxonomic composition. To allow better predictions about how climate changes may affect these organisms, we compared arthropod assemblages between open and shrub‐dominated tundra at three field sites in northern Alaska that encompass a range of shrub communities. Over ten weeks of sampling in 2011, pitfall traps captured significantly more arthropods in shrub plots than open tundra plots at two of the three sites. Furthermore, taxonomic richness and diversity were significantly greater in shrub plots than open tundra plots, although this pattern was site‐specific as well. Patterns of abundance within the five most abundant arthropod orders differed, with spiders (Order: Araneae) more abundant in open tundra habitats and true bugs (Order: Hemiptera), flies (Order: Diptera), and wasps and bees (Order: Hymenoptera) more abundant in shrub‐dominated habitats. Few strong relationships were found between vegetation and environmental variables and arthropod abundance; however, lichen cover seemed to be important for the overall abundance of arthropods. Some arthropod orders showed significant relationships with other vegetation variables, including maximum shrub height (Coleoptera) and foliar canopy cover (Diptera). As climate warming continues over the coming decades, and with further shrub expansion likely to occur, changes in arthropod abundance, richness, and diversity associated with shrub‐dominated habitat may have important ecological effects on arctic food webs since arthropods play important ecological roles in the tundra, including in decomposition and trophic interactions.     

Diversity and distribution of marine microbial eukaryotes in the Arctic Ocean and adjacent seas

We analyzed microbial eukaryote diversity in perennially cold arctic marine waters by using 18S rRNA gene clone libraries. Samples were collected during concurrent oceanographic missions to opposite sides of the Arctic Ocean Basin and encompassed five distinct water masses. Two deep water Arctic Ocean sites and the convergence of the Greenland, Norwegian, and Barents Seas were sampled from 28 August to 2 September 2002. An additional sample was obtained from the Beaufort Sea (Canada) in early October 2002. The ribotypes were diverse, with different communities among sites and between the upper mixed layer and just below the halocline. Eukaryotes from the remote Canada Basin contained new phylotypes belonging to the radiolarian orders Acantharea, Polycystinea, and Taxopodida. A novel group within the photosynthetic stramenopiles was also identified. One sample closest to the interior of the Canada Basin yielded only four major taxa, and all but two of the sequences recovered belonged to the polar diatom Fragilariopsis and a radiolarian. Overall, 42% of the sequences were <98% similar to any sequences in GenBank. Moreover, 15% of these were <95% similar to previously recovered sequences, which is indicative of endemic or undersampled taxa in the North Polar environment. The cold, stable Arctic Ocean is a threatened environment, and climate change could result in significant loss of global microbial biodiversity.     

Structure and biodiversity of nematode assemblages in the SW lagoon of New Caledonia

 Meiofaunal density and the taxonomic composition of nematodes were investigated in three bottom types of the SW lagoon of New Caledonia (SW Pacific). Meiofaunal density was significantly higher in white-sand bottoms than in other biotopes (grey-sand and muddy bottoms). Thirty-three nematode families and 172 genera were identified. Species diversity indices were significantly lower in back-reef white-sand than in seagrass grey-sand and coastal mud. The familial, generic and species diversity were analysed in relation to ecological and biotic parameters by multivariate factorial correspondence analysis and hierarchical clustering. The analysis at familial level was unable to discriminate between stations and biotopes. The analysis at generic level detected three main nematode associations related to microphytobenthic primary productivity, macrophyte biomass and silt content. Taxonomic composition of one white-sand station (Mbéré reef) differed from all others in relation to an increased chlorophyll/pheophytin ratio and a lower silt content. Grey-sand stations were split in two distinct groups. The first combined two of the three white-sand stations and the grey-sand stations, all of which were characterised by a medium silt content and a medium productivity. The second group combined the muddy bottom stations and the siltiest grey-sand stations which were characterised by a high silt content, a lower macroflora biomass and low productivity. Accepted: 22 October 1996     

Spatial and temporal variations in nematode assemblages in tropical seagrass sediments

The changes in the community dynamics of infaunal nematodes associated with tropical Australian intertidal seagrasses at 4 estuarine sites were investigated through 3 seasons (autumn, winter and spring). Nematode densities were highest in winter in all but one of the sites, ranging from 1971 to 3084 inds./10 cm², with one site showing a highest density of 3411 inds./10 cm² in spring. Multiple regression revealed significant correlations between nematode density peaks and seasonal changes in temperature, salinity and surface seagrass cover. Non-metric Multi-Dimensional Scaling revealed that the communities were characterised by relatively low within-site spatial variability but relatively high temporal variability through the three seasons. This temporal variability was largely due to significant increases in abundance of epistrate-feeding species in winter and spring. An investigation of the dominant epistrate-feeding nematodes revealed that predominantly infaunal species were responsible for overall winter and spring density increases. This study provides further evidence of the role played by temperature in regulating tropical, intertidal meiobenthic communities but also indirectly provides evidence of micro-scale seagrass canopy effects (micro-algal supply and availability) that may further enhance the impacts of these larger-scale seasonal environmental changes on the infaunal nematode community.     

Carbon isotopic composition in suspended organic matter and bottom sediments of the East Arctic seas

The samples of water and bottom sediments of the East Siberian and Chukchi Seas collected during the second Russian-American RUSALCA expedition were used to analyze patterns of the isotopic composition of carbon in the organic matter (OM) of suspended material (SOM) and bottom sediments (BOM). Similar to other marine environments, the SOM isotopic composition depended on the ratio between the terrigenous and planktonic OM, both in the water body as a whole and in its parts. Thus, in the East Siberian Sea the carbon of SOM was poorer in ¹³C (??¹³C = ?24.51??) than the open part of the more productive Chukchi Sea (??¹³C = ?22.16??). In the less productive coastal waters of the Chukchi Sea, the ratio of terrigenous OM increased, resulting in a ??¹³C shift to lower values (?23.40??). Due to the influx of reduced products of anaerobic diagenesis of the sediments, elevated total number of microorganisms and dark CO₂ fixation were found in the near-bottom water at the water-sediment biogeochemical barrier. The newly formed biomass of autotrophic microorganisms shifted the carbon isotopic composition of the near-bottom suspended material to more positive ??¹³C values, with the average values of ?23.39 and ?20.37?? for the East Siberian and Chukchi Sea, respectively. Changes in the carbon isotopic composition of OM resulting from microbial activity continued in the upper sediment layers. When the rate of biomass synthesis increased that of biomass consumption, the ¹³C content increased further. At higher rates of OM mineralization, ¹²C accumulated in its remaining part.     

Global patterns in the phylogenetic structure of island mammal assemblages

Assemblage-level phylogenies carry the signature of ecological and evolutionary processes, which may provide useful information on modes of assemblage formation. We present a global-scale analysis of the emergent phylogenetic properties of mammal assemblages on islands, in which we compared the structure of 595 island assemblages with null models constructed under four alternative definitions of regional source pools. Although most assemblages had a structure indistinguishable from random samples, for some mammal taxa, up to 40% of island assemblages were phylogenetically overdispersed. This suggests that in at least some cases, the processes that shape island faunas are not independent of phylogeny. Furthermore, measures of phylogenetic structure were associated in some cases with island geographical features (size, maximum elevation and habitat diversity). Our results suggest that part of the signal of assemblage formation processes is detectable in the phylogenies of contemporary island mammal faunas, though much is obscured by the complexity of these processes.     

Transmission of parasites in the coastal waters of the Arctic seas and possible effect of climate change

The review deals with the biodiversity, life cycles, distribution and temperature adaptations of parasites circulating in the coastal waters of northern polar seas. Special attention is given to helminths of marine birds, which are the most common parasites in the coastal waters. Among them, the focus is on trematodes. Factors responsible for the impoverished species composition of parasites in the Arctic are analyzed. It is shown that species without free-living larvae in the life cycle have an advantage in this environment. The abundance of cestodes and acanthocephalans in Arctic seabirds is linked with the high proportion of crustaceans in their diet. The phenomenon of nonspecific parasitism (occurrence of parasites in atypical host species) is analyzed from an evolutionary viewpoint. Characteristic features in the spatial distribution of infection of marine coastal invertebrates with parasite larvae are considered, and factors that determine it are specified. The prevalence of infection in intermediate hosts is closely connected with the abundance of final hosts, which makes it possible to estimate the abundance of final hosts in a given region and reveal trends in its changes. Trematodes have a high potential for temperature acclimation. This facilitates their transmission in the northern seas but, on the other hand, makes it unlikely that the transmission process would be intensified upon an increase in summer temperatures resulting from climate warming. However, intensification of transmission may well occur due to the prolongation of the warm season (“transmission window”), which has been predicted and is already observed. It is suggested that warming in the Arctic promotes both the entry of certain “southern” species into the Arctic and the trans-Arctic interpenetration of the North Atlantic and North Pacific parasitic faunas. A case is made for the necessity to broaden the scope of parasitological research in the Arctic and Subarctic, including parasitological monitoring at the reference sites of the sea coast.     

Effect of phytoplankton and microorganisms on the isotopic composition of organic carbon in the Russian Arctic seas

Carbon isotope composition of suspended organic matter (CIC_SOM) and of organic carbon of the bottom sediments (CIC_BS) was studied in a series of expeditions (starting in 1993) to the White, Kara, Chukchi, and Barents seas in the Russian Arctic. For each sea, CIC_SOM and CIC_BS was found to depend primarily on the ratio of OM produced in the water and OM of terrigenous origin. While in the White Sea, where the primary production (PP) is 5.3 times higher than the yearly inflow of terrigenous OM, δ¹³C of SOM carbon is ?29.1‰, in the Chukchi Sea, where PP is more than 300 times higher than the inflow of terrigenous OM, δ¹³C of SOM carbon is ?21.8‰. In the Barents and Chukchi seas, a considerable effect of suspended material arriving with the currents from the neighboring seas on formation of the CIC_SOM was demonstrated. The difference between CIC OM of the bottom sediments form CIC_SOM, the main component of organic matter in the sediments of all shelf seas, was demonstrated for the first time for all the seas studied. This results from production of additional microbial OM due to CO₂ assimilation at the water-sediment redox boundary or in near-bottom water.     

Substratum as a structuring influence on assemblages of Arctic bryozoans

The nature of the substratum is a fundamental factor determining the types of organisms and communities found in many terrestrial and benthic habitats. The extent to which this is true in extreme environments was investigated using bryozoan assemblages as model organisms in an Arctic fjord (Kongsfjorden 79°N, 12°E) in summer 2001 using SCUBA. Twenty-seven substrate samples of 0.25 m² were taken at 10 m depth from the inner glacial basin to the mouth of the fjord. Multivariate analyses revealed four different bryozoan assemblages. The sea floor of the inner basin of Kongsfjorden near the glacial fronts was characterized by low diversity and dominance of the ctenostome species Alcyonidium disciforme Smitt. Highest richness and diversity occurred on rock substratum with mean size >10 cm², on which the most common species was the pioneer Harmeria scutulata Busk (abundance: 15%). On smaller rocks with mean size <2 cm², the runner-like pioneer species Electra arctica Borg comprised most individuals of the assemblage (98%). Yet another pioneer, Celleporella hyalina Linnaeus, was the most abundant species (49%) on substratum dominated by algae. Thus, in each habitat type, pioneers dominated but different species and to different extents. There was much variation in species composition and abundance within assemblages of heterogeneous habitats, and this study emphasizes the importance of microhabitats and physical conditions. Heterogeneity was evident at scales of <1 m.     

Macroecological patterns of species richness in parasite assemblages

The diversity of parasite species exploiting a host population varies substantially among different host species. This review summarizes the main predictions generated by the two main theoretical frameworks used to study parasite diversity. The first is island biogeography theory, which predicts that host features, such as body size, that are associated with the probability of colonization by new parasite species, should covary with parasite species richness. The second predictive framework derives from epidemiological modelling; it predicts that host species with features that increase parasite transmission success among host individuals, such as high population density, will sustain a greater diversity of parasite species. A survey of comparative studies of parasite diversity among fish and mammalian host species finds support for most of the predictions derived from the above two theoretical perspectives. This empirical support, however, is not universal. It is often qualitative only, because quantitative predictions are lacking. Finally, the amount of variance in parasite diversity explained by host features is generally low. To move forward, the search for the determinants of parasite diversity will need to rely less on theories developed for free-living organisms, and more on its own set of hypotheses incorporating specific host–parasite interactions such as immune responses.

Zusammenfassung

Die Diversität der Parasitenarten, die eine Wirtspopulation nutzen, variiert erheblich zwischen verschiedenen Wirtsarten. Dieser Review fasst die hauptsächlichen Vorhersagen zusammen, die von den zwei wichtigsten theoretischen Rahmenkonzepten hervorgebracht werden, die für die Untersuchung der Parasitendiversität genutzt werden. Die erste ist die Inselbiogeografie, die vorhersagt, dass Wirtsmerkmale, die mit der Besiedlungswahrscheinlichkeit durch einen neuen Parasiten verknüpft sind, wie beispielsweise die Körpergröße, mit dem Artenreichtum der Parasiten kovariieren sollten. Das zweite Rahmenkonzept ist aus der epidemiologischen Modellierung abgeleitet. Es sagt vorher, dass Wirtsarten mit Merkmalen, die den Übertragungserfolg der Parasiten zwischen den Wirtsindividuen erhöhen, wie beispielsweise hohe Populationsdichten, eine größere Diversität von Parasitenarten erhalten werden. Eine Begutachtung von vergleichenden Untersuchungen über Parasitendiversität bei Fischen und Säugetieren als Wirtsarten unterstützt die meisten der Vorhersagen, die von den oben genannten zwei theoretischen Perspektiven abgeleitet sind. Diese empirische Bestätigung ist jedoch nicht allgemein gültig. Sie ist häufig nur qualitativ, da quantitative Vorhersagen fehlen. Schließlich ist der Anteil der Varianz in der Parasitendiversität, der durch die Wirtsmerkmale erklärt wird, normalerweise gering. Um vorwärts zu kommen muss sich die Suche nach den bestimmenden Faktoren der Parasitendiversität weniger auf Theorien, die für freilebende Organismen entwickelt wurden, und mehr auf ihre eigene Menge von Hypothesen verlassen, die spezifische Wirt-Parasit-Interaktionen, wie beispielsweise Immunreaktionen, mit einbeziehen.     

Components and patterns in the behaviour of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans

The behavioural activities during movement, feeding and defaecation have been recorded and measured in adult females of Caenorhabditis elegans . The postures and components of recognizable wave forms are described. Stress has been laid on the mechanism of antagonistic interaction of backward and forward movement, and the rates and characteristics of spontaneous and induced reversal periods. During feeding, rapid rates of pharyngeal activity are invariably related to low rates of somatic muscle wave propagation. Head oscillations are considered to be separate events not directly linked with feeding or foraging. The combination of certain wave forms, together with other measurements have been used to develop a hypothesis to describe a co-ordinating mechanism applicable to the nematode level of organization.     

Effects of paint-derived tributyltin on structure of estuarine nematode assemblages in experimental microcosms

A microcosm experiment was designed to evaluate the effects of different levels of paint-derived tributyltin (TBT), and different modes of exposure, on the diversity, feeding mode and assemblage structure of estuarine nematodes. Estuarine meiofauna were exposed to two types of treatments (mixture and deposit), containing uncontaminated sediment and sediment spiked with paint-derived TBT at 1 and 10 mg kg⁻¹ for a duration of 4 and 8 weeks. In the mixture treatments, meiofauna assemblages were incubated in clean and contaminated sediments. In the deposit treatments meiofauna assemblages were exposed to the deposition of clean and contaminated sediments simulating the disposal of TBT-contaminated dredged material at sea. Effects of TBT on nematode species are likely to occur by (a) the uptake of leached TBT from the sediment pore water through their permeable cuticle, resulting in decreased diversity and increased changes in assemblage structure with increasing levels of TBT contamination, and (b) direct ingestion of paint-particles with food, resulting in a significant decline of nonselective deposit feeders in contaminated sediments. The numbers of many species differed greatly between mixture and deposit treatments. Results from multivariate analyses showed an immediate and dominant effect of burial on most nematode species in the deposit treatments compared to the longer-term effect of TBT contamination. The survival rates of nematode species in the top layer of these sediments depended on their ability to withstand TBT contamination as well as their potential to migrate, survive and reproduce in the deposit. This study unambiguously showed that the response of nematode species depended not only on the level of TBT contamination but also on the duration and mode of exposure to contaminated sediment, which should be taken into account when assessing the effects of TBT on aquatic communities.