The influence of juvenile hormone analogue on soldier differentiation in the higher termite,Macrotermes michaelseni*

ABSTRACT. The influence of topically-applied or vapour-administered juvenile hormone analogue (ZR-515, methoprene (JHA)), on soldier differentiation in a higher termite species, Macrotermes michaelseni (Sjostedt) (Isoptera; Macro-termitinae) was examined. It was found that even male third larvae, which under natural conditions develop exclusively into major workers, could be induced by JHA to differentiate into presoldiers. Intermediate forms between workers and soldiers were produced from some of the treated individuals. Administered in vapour form, JHA induced a higher proportion of presoldiers and a lower proportion of intermediate forms than it did when administered topically. The rate of presoldier formation was found to be JHA-dose-dependent. Biometric analysis showed that male presoldiers have the largest head capsule size, but the smallest mandibular index. The possible mechanism of soldier induction is discussed.     

Correlation between larval weights,endocrine gland activities and competence period during differentiation of workers and soldiers in Macrotermes michaelseni (Isoptera:Termitidae)

Correlations were established between corpora allata and prothoracic gland activities, changes in fresh weights and competence period for soldier formation in a higher termite species, Macrotermes michaelseni. There was a time-course differential increase in fresh weights observed in pairs of female third (final)-instar larvae of the same age previously adopted by a pair of female reproductives from incipient colonies. A bimodal distribution of these larvae according to weights was evident from the first day of the instar. Heavier larvae were associated with higher corpora allata and prothoracic gland volumes (activities), and differentiation into presoldiers, while lighter larvae had considerably less-active corpora allata and prothoracic glands and developed into workers. The peak in the activities of these glands in both cases marked the end of the competence period.The chain of events that may precede caste differentiation is discussed briefly and the significance of the findings outlined.     

The underground passages and storage pits used in foraging by a nest of the termite Macrotermes michaelseni in Kajiado, Kenya

Part of the system of underground passages and storage pits used in foraging by a nest of Mucrofermes michaelseni was excavated and is described in detail, and an attempt is made to quantify it. Densities as high as 1.9 m of passage and 21.4 storage pits per m² were recorded in the main foraging zone, which is 10–35 m from the nest. The estimated total for the whole nest was just under 6 km of passage and 72,000 storage pits, in an area of about 8000m²     

Histology of the hormone-producing glands in the damp-wood termite <Emphasis Type="Italic">Hodotermopsis sjostedti</Emphasis> (Isoptera,Termopsidae): A focus on soldier differentiation

Caste differentiation in termites depends on complex hormonal changes during postembryonic development. Juvenile hormone (JH) is a central player in this process. The present study examined histological changes in the main hormone-producing endocrine glands, the corpora allata and molt glands, in the Japanese dampwood termite Hodotermopsis sjostedti. We focused on the soldier caste differentiation pathway, which can be induced artificially using an analogue of JH. The corpora allata exhibited volumetric changes during soldier induction, reflecting variations in the quantity of cytoplasm. Corpora allata from alates and neotenics clearly showed differentiation accompanied by cell proliferation, preparing for the high-level JH production necessary for reproduction. However, the volume increase of corpora allata was not always correlated to high JH titers. In contrast, molt glands degenerated in the reproductive castes. The JH analogue induced hypertrophy of the molt glands, along with the formation of lacunae, possibly related to ecdysteroid production. The JH analogue effect, inducing soldier differentiation, was suggested to require both mimic of high JH titers and stimulation of the molt glands. Received 12 November 2007; revised 2 June 2008; accepted 14 July 2008.     

Influence of substrate composition on human embryonic stem cell differentiation and extracellular matrix production in embryoid bodies

Stem cells reside in specialized niches in vivo. Specific factors, including the extracellular matrix (ECM), in these niches are directly responsible for maintaining the stem cell population. During development, components of the stem cell microenvironment also control differentiation with precise spatial and temporal organization. The stem cell microenvironment is dynamically regulated by the cellular component, including stem cells themselves. Thus, a mechanism exists whereby stem cells modify the ECM, which in turn affects the fate of the stem cell. In this study, we investigated whether the type of ECM initially adsorbed to the culture substrate can influence the composition of the ECM deposited by human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) differentiating in embryoid bodies, and whether different ECM composition and deposition profiles elicit distinct differentiation fates. We have shown that the initial ECM environment hESCs are exposed to affects the fate decisions of those cells and that this initial ECM environment is constantly modified during the differentiation process. © 2014 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Biotechnol. Prog., 31:212–219, 2015     

Inter-group encounters and female transfer in mountain gorillas: Influence of group composition on male behavior

This paper examines the behaviors used by male gorillas (G. gorilla beringei) to influence female choice during inter-group encounters. Encounters are related to the acquisition of females rather than to the defense of a group's range. Data on 58 independent encounters confirms that encounters are generally aggressive, but that contact aggression is less frequent than previously reported. A high number of potential migrants in one of the groups involved, rather than the newness of either group, predicts the likelihood of contact aggression between males. Encounters with a newly formed unit last longer than encounters involving established groups. Male herding serves to prevent female transfer. Females without dependent offspring are more likely than others to be herded. Proceptive females are the target of herding more often than non-proceptive cycling females. Groups where herding has been observed are more likely to be newly formed, and they include significantly more males. This last result confirms that there are advantages to male cooperation in gorillas. It also raises the question of why such cooperation does not occur more often. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Effects of carbon-dioxide anaesthesia on the number of instars,larval duration and adult body size of the German cockroach, Blattella germanica

Effects of repeated carbon-dioxide anaesthesia during larval development on the number of moults, larval duration, and the body size of resulting adults were investigated. Concentration of carbon dioxide administered was 70%, and each period of anaesthesia lasted for 3 min. Anaesthesia administered twice a week until the 3rd instar increased the number of instars required to reach maturity. However, repeated anaesthesia after the 4th instar scarcely influenced the number of instars. On the other hand, repeated anesthesia prolonged larval duration whenever administered during the early or late instars. It is thus suggested that anaesthesia by carbon dioxide during larval development has two distinct effects: increasing the number of moults and prolonging larval duration. The former is stage specific and effective only during early instars, whereas the latter is effective during any particular instars until the last instar. The body size of resulting adults remained almost the same as for controls even after the repeated carbon-dioxide anaesthesia as many as 14 times. Some further observations concerning correlations between the number of moults, larval duration and adult body size are shown, and differences between the sexes regarding the number of instars and larval duration are also presented.     

Soldier caste influences on candidate primer pheromone levels and juvenile hormone-dependent caste differentiation in workers of the termite Reticulitermes flavipes

Caste systems and the division of labor they make possible are common underlying features of all social insects. Multiple extrinsic factors have been shown to impact caste composition in social insect colonies. Primer pheromones are one type of extrinsic caste-regulatory factor; they are chemical signaling molecules produced by certain colony members to impact developmental physiology of recipient nestmates. However, only limited evidence exists regarding primer pheromones and their actions in eusocial termites. In previous research we identified two soldier-produced terpenes, γ-cadinene (CAD) and γ-cadinenal (ALD), as candidate primer pheromones of the lower termite Reticulitermes flavipes. In the present study we tested hypotheses related to CAD and ALD action in recipient individuals. We examined the influences of terminally developed soldier termites on (1) CAD and ALD levels and (2) caste differentiation in developmentally totipotent workers. Our findings show CAD and ALD (respectively) are caste stimulatory and inhibitory components of chemical blends present in soldier heads, ALD levels increase significantly (10.9×) in workers only in the presence of soldiers, and soldiers can reduce developmental-hormone response thresholds of workers, presumably via ALD action. These findings provide novel evidence supporting that CAD and ALD are authentic caste-regulatory primer pheromones in Reticulitermes.     

The effect of season and group size on survivorship and larval growth in Plagiodera versicolora

Abstract.

• 1 The larvae of the multivoltine imported willow leaf beetle, Plagiodera versicolora (Laicharting), are found in larval aggregations during the first half of the larval stage. An experimental study was conducted to test for seasonal (brood) and group size effects on larval fitness. For each of the three broods, egg group sizes of 1, 4, 8, 16 , 24 and 32 were established in the field and monitored for the first 6 days post-hatching.
• 2 There was no effect of group size on larval weight, but there was a significant effect of group size on survival. Individuals from group size 16 had the highest survival, which coincides with the mean natural cluster size of 15.3 eggs.
• 3 There were no significant interactions between brood and group size.
• 4 The effect of larval weight on adult fitness was determined in the laboratory and the field. Larval weight was correlated with egg production in the laboratory but not in the field.

     

尖唇散白蚁工蚁、兵蚁和繁殖蚁精子发生的比较研究

为探讨白蚁非生殖品级和生殖品级生殖细胞发育差异,采用组织学染色技术对尖唇散白蚁Reticulitermes aculabialis Tsaiet Hwang繁殖蚁、工蚁和兵蚁的精巢发育以及精子发生进行了显微观察和比较研究。结果发现3个品级间精巢发育的程度差异很大,三者精巢切面面积相对大小之比为:繁殖蚁∶工蚁=1.7∶1;繁殖蚁∶兵蚁=29.3∶1;工蚁∶兵蚁=17.1∶1。繁殖蚁和工蚁精巢管内有精子的形成,工蚁和繁殖蚁精子的发生都经历了精原细胞、初级精母细胞、次级精母细胞、精细胞和精子时期,但工蚁有大量次级精母细胞呈细胞凋亡状态。兵蚁生殖细胞发育仅有精原细胞、初级精母细胞、次级精母细胞,没有精细胞和精子产生。工蚁的生殖细胞显著小于同一时期繁殖蚁的生殖细胞,兵蚁的各时期生殖细胞均极显著小于繁殖蚁同一时期的生殖细胞。研究表明各品级之间生殖功能分化与生殖细胞发育有直接关系,工蚁有转化为补充繁殖蚁和兵蚁的能力;而兵蚁由于精巢极度退化不能产生精细胞和精子,因此是非生殖品级分化的终极形式,不具有转化成补充繁殖蚁或其它品级的能力。     

Niche differentiation depends on body size in a cichlid fish: a model system of a community structured according to size regularities

1. Communities of different species are often structured according to niche differentiation associated with competitive interactions. We show that similar principles may apply on an ecological time-scale when individuals of a species having a wide size variation compete for resources, using the Lake Tanganyika cichlid Lobochilotes labiatus (5-30 cm). This species has a mouth especially adapted to suck up invertebrates from rock crevices. 2. Individuals defended feeding territories against similar-sized conspecifics, but not against different-sized ones. Thus, territories of similar-sized fish rarely overlapped, but up to a total of seven individuals (of seven size-ranks) had broadly overlapping territories with dissimilar-sized individuals. Comparison with expectation from the null model demonstrated clearly that observed size ratios between adjacent size rank were determined non-randomly regardless of sexual combinations. 3. Larger individuals took larger prey types of larger average size, but more importantly used wider rock crevices from which to suck food than smaller individuals. We calculated pairwise values of Schoener's index of diet overlap C(d) and the values of Levin's index of diet breadth B(d) (prey type and prey size) and the same for the width of the rock crevices used for foraging (C(r) and B(r)). C(d) remained high among all combinations of the seven ranks. In contrast, C(r) declined strongly in combinations of adjacent ranks (to 0.27), and was low or zero among further different size ranks. This shows that fish with overlapping territories divided the food resources largely through foraging site partitioning. Accordingly, B(d) did not depend on the size difference to the nearest two coinhabiting fish, whereas B(r) did. 4. We conclude that this L. labiatus community is structured non-randomly: body size-dependent effects on foraging site usage result in competition with, and territorial exclusion of, similar-sized individuals, but not of dissimilar-sized individuals that were accepted as coinhabitants. Accordingly, mean body size ratios (large/small) between two adjacent ranks were consistently approximately 1.28 [standard deviation (SD) = 0.07, n = 104], while approximately 1.34 from the null model (SD = 0.34, n = 10 400 simulations). We discuss our results as an example of Hutchinson's rule, applied originally to size ratios of different species.     

Effect of larval ontogeny, turbulence and light on prey attack rate and swimming activity in herring larvae

The effects of ontogeny (larval size), light and turbulence on the attack rate and swimming activity (proportion of time swimming and duration of swimming bout) of herring larvae (15-28 mm TL) have been investigated. Emphasis was put on the experimental design in order to create a set-up where the turbulence intensity distribution could be accurately measured as well as controlled in the entire experimental tank.Both larval size (ontogeny) and light had a significant positive effect on prey attack rate. Likewise, an intermediate increase in turbulence had a positive effect on prey attack rate, but this effect was dependent of light intensity and larval size.At low light (1.5 μE m² s⁻¹) intermediate turbulence increased the prey attack rate significantly for larger larvae (26 and 28 mm), while at high light (18 μE m² s⁻¹) intermediate turbulence had only a significant positive effect on the attack rate of smaller larvae 20 and 23 mm.In general, our data show a dome-shaped response of turbulence on attack rate and a U-shaped response of turbulence on swimming activity.For herring larvae >20 mm, the maximum (attack rate) and minimum (swimming activity) response of turbulence were found at intermediate turbulence intensities (energy dissipation rates between 7∗10⁻⁸ and 1∗10⁻⁶ W/kg). The highest turbulence level tested (8∗10⁻⁶ W/kg) showed only negative effects, as attack rates where at the lowest and swimming activity at the highest.Swimming activity increased with larval size or light, and decreased at intermediate turbulence. Compared to turbulent intensities under natural conditions this implies that larger herring larvae at 10 m depth have to be exposed to wind speeds of more than 17 m/s before negative effects on attack rate and swimming activity occurs.     

Influence of inflorescence size on sexual expression and female reproductive success in a monoecious species

Sex allocation theory forecasts that larger plant size may modify the balance in fitness gain in both genders, leading to uneven optimal male and female allocation. This reasoning can be applied to flowers and inflorescences, because the increase in flower or inflorescence size can differentially benefit different gender functions, and thus favour preferential allocation to specific floral structures. We investigated how inflorescence size influenced sexual expression and female reproductive success in the monoecious Tussilago farfara, by measuring patterns of biomass, and N and P allocation. Inflorescences of T.?farfara showed broad variation in sex expression and, according to expectations, allocation to different sexual structures showed an allometric pattern. Unexpectedly, two studied populations had a contrasting pattern of sex allocation with an increase in inflorescence size. In a shaded site, larger inflorescences were female-biased and had disproportionately more allocation to attraction structures; while in an open site, larger inflorescences were male-biased. Female reproductive success was higher in larger, showier inflorescences. Surprisingly, male flowers positively influenced female reproductive success. These allometric patterns were not easily interpretable as a result of pollen limitation when na?vely assuming an unequivocal relationship between structure and function for the inflorescence structures. In this and other Asteraceae, where inflorescences are the pollination unit, both male and female flowers can play a role in pollinator attraction.     

Quantitative studies on anti-allatin and lethal effects of a synthetic precocene in different larval instars of the desert locust

The lethal and anti-allatin effects of various doses of 7-ethoxy-precocene II (PIII), topically applied to crowdedSchistocerca gregaria nymphs, 0–27 h after the previous moult, were investigated for the five nymphal instars. The LD (lethal dose) probit lines were parallel for the different instars. The ED (effective anti-allatin dose) probit lines were also parallel. But for each instar the LD and ED probit lines seemed to be convergent toward the higher doses. The LD₅₀ and the ED₅₀ (g PIII/g fresh weight) were not widely separated; the LD₅₀/ED₅₀ ratio was instar dependent and varied between 1.26 (Vth instar) and 5.35 (IIIrd instar). Thus, separation between lethal effect, anti-allatin effect and no effect was rather poor; indeed in many instances all these types of results were obtained in a group of hoppers treated with the same dose in the same instar. A low precocene susceptibility was observed for the Ist instar and for each subsequent instar the susceptibility further decreased; the LD₅₀ and the ED₅₀ were respectively 886 g/g and 328 g/g for the Ist instar, but increased to 14 307 g/g and 11 367 g/g for the Vth instar. The anti-allatin effect of the precocene induced various morphogenetic responses: (1) permanent adultiform in the instar next to that treated; (2) death in the moult from the next to the second consecutive instar; (3) permanent adultiform in the second consecutive instar. The occurrence and/or distribution of these responses were instar dependent and for the first three instars also limitedly dose dependent. The anti-allatin effect of the precocene applied to Vth (last) instar nymphs became overt by sterility and lack of yellow colour in the adult. An overt anti-allatin effect was always coupled with a response dependent increase of the duration of the instar treated and/or of the next instar.

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Etudes quantitatives des effets létaux ou antiallates d'un précocène de synthèse sur différents stades larvaires du criquet pélerin

Résumé L'étude a porté sur les effets létaux ou antiallates de différentes doses de 7-éthoxy-précocène II (PIII), déposées de 0 à 27 heures après la mue sur la surface dorsale de l'abdomen de larves groupées de chacun des 5 stades larvaires deSchistocerca gregaria. Les courbes des doses létales (LD) ont été parallèles pour les différents stades. Les courbes pour les doses antiallates (ED) étaient elles aussi parallèles. Cependent pour chaque stade, ces deux courbes semblaient converger et même se croiser vers les doses les plus fortes. Les LD₅₀ et ED₅₀ (en g de PIII par gramme de poids frais) n'étaient pas nettement séparées; le rapport LD₅₀/ED₅₀ dépendait du stade et variait entre 1,26 (5è stade) et 5,35 (3è stade). Ainsi la distinction entre effet létal, effet antiallate et absence d'effet était plutôt faible; à la vérité, dans de nombreux cas, tous ces effets ont été obtenus dans un groupe de criquets traités avec la même dose au même stade. Une sensibilité assez faible au précocène a été observée, même au ler stade, et pendant chaque stade suivant la sensibilité ultérieure diminuait; LD₅₀ et ED₅₀ ont été respectivement 886 g/g et 328 g/g pour le ler stade, mais ont augmenté à 14 307 g/g et 11 367 g/g pour le 5è stade. Les effets antiallates ont induit différentes conséquences morphologiques: (1) des adultiformes permanents lors du stade suivant immédiatement le stade traité; (2) mort pendant la mue du ler ou 2nd stade suivant le traitement; (3) des adultiformes permanents dans le 2nd stade après le traitement. L'apparition et/ou la distribution de ces réponses dépendaient du stade, et pour les 3 premiers stades étaient partiellement dépendantes de la dose. L'effet antiallate du précocène au 5è stade (dernier) devenait évident avec la stérilité et la perte de la coloration jaune de l'adulte. Un effet antiallate manifeste était toujours associé à un accroissement d dépendant de la dose de la durée du stade traité et/ou du stade suivant.

     

Influence of physical and chemical factors on the larval abundance of Neurothemis tullia (Drury) (Odonata:Libellulidae) in a rain fed rice field

The influence of physical and chemical factors such as pH, temperature, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, nitrate, phosphate and chlorophyll a on larval populations of Neurothemis tullia (Drury) (Odonata:Libellulidae) were studied in a rain-fed rice field by collecting larvae and water samples weekly over two seasons of rice planting. Water availability was the main factor determining the presence or absence of larvae in the rice field. The larvae were most abundant during extended periods of continuously plentiful water supply except during flooding. Rapid larval population build-ups were observed soon after chemical applications or spells of dry periods reflecting continual oviposition and hatching of eggs. Pesticides and fertilizer applications resulted in low population densities due to direct or indirect mortality. A stepwise multiple regression showed that within its range, none of the physical and chemical factors measured in this study affected the abundance of N. tullia. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Social cohesion in groups of sheep: Effect of activity level, sex composition and group size

We investigated the effects of activity, group size and sex composition on the cohesion of merino sheep (Ovis aries) groups. Mixed-sex (50% of each sex) and single-sex groups of 2, 4, 6 and 8 sheep were placed within 491-m² arenas located in natural pastures and were video recorded during 6 daily hours. The behaviour, orientation and location of each sheep were then extracted from the films at 1-s intervals. We analysed the polarisation of individual orientations, mean inter-individual and nearest neighbours’ distances, as well as the frequency of pairs of nearest neighbours according to their sex within mixed-sex groups. Sheep were more aggregated than predicted under the null hypothesis of random spatial distribution for all group compositions and sizes. Sheep were more spread out and less aligned in half-active than in all-active groups, showing that social cohesion was reduced by a lack of activity synchronisation. The highest proximity between individuals was found in resting groups, yet alignment was low. The polarisation peaked in all-active groups. Mean inter-individual distance did not vary and the nearest neighbour distance decreased as group size increased. When sheep were all-active or all-resting, mixed-sex groups were more spread out than single-sex ones, with a greater distance between opposite than between same-sex individuals. Nearest neighbours of the same sex were also more frequent than random. Our results show that social cohesion can be modulated by activity synchrony but also by social affinity.     

Pheromone of male blue gourami and its effect on vitellogcnesis, steroidogenesis and gonadotropin cells in pituitary of the female

Female Trichogaster trichopterus were exposed to aquarium water in which males had built nests. Gonadotropin cells in the pituitary gland, and exovitellogenesis and steroidogenesis in the ovary were studied. In females in which the percentage of oocytes in vitellogenesis (%V) was low initially, it rose significantly in comparison with an unexposed control group. In females in which the %V was higher initially, it increased further, and in addition a significant percentage of oocytes reached maturation. Thin layer chromatography, using the precursors ³H-pregnenolone and ¹⁴progesterone, revealed high yields of the steroids 17β-estradiol (E₂), 17α,20β-dihydroxy-4-pregnen-3-one (17,20-P), 5β-pregane,3α,17α,20β-triol (5β-P-triol) and 11-ketotestosterone (11KT) in both experimental groups. Significant differences were found in E₂, 17,20-P and 5β-P-triol between the test and control groups. The immunoresponse of GtH-producing cells in the pituitary of the females maintained in nest water was lower than in the control group, suggesting that the GtH was secreted from the cells, which would explain the vitellogenic and steroidogenic changes found in the ovary.     

The effects of dominance rank and group size on female lifetime reproductive success in wild long-tailed macaques,Macaca fascicularis

Demographic changes were recorded throughout a 12-year period for three social groups ofMacaca fascicularis in a natural population at Ketambe (Sumatra, Indonesia). We examined the prediction that females' lifetime reproductive success depended on dominance rank and group size. Average birth rate was 0.53 (184 infants born during 349 female years). For mature females (aged 8–20 yr) birth rate reflected physical condition, being higher in years with high food availability and lower in the year following the production of a surviving infant. High-ranking females were significantly more likely than low-ranking ones to give birth again when they did have a surviving offspring born the year before (0.50 vs 0.26), especially in years with relatively low food availability (0.37 vs 0.10). Controlled comparisons of groups at different sizes indicate a decline in birth rate with rroup size only once a group has exceeded a certain size. The dominance effect on birth rate tended to be strongest in large groups. Survival of infants was rank-dependent, but the survival of juveniles was not. There was a trend for offspring survival to be lower in large groups than in mid-sized or small groups. However, rank and group size interacted, in that rank effects on offspring survival were strongest in large groups. High-ranking females were less likely to die themselves during their top-reproductive years, and thus on average had longer reproductive careers. We estimated female lifetime reproductive success based on calculated age-specific birth rates and survival rates. The effects of rank and group size (contest and scramble) on birth rate, offspring survival, age of first reproduction for daughters, and length of reproductive career, while not each consistently statistically significant, added up to substantial effects on estimated lifetime reproductive success. The group size effects explain why large groups tend to split permanently. Since females are philopatric in this species, and daughters achieve dominance rank positions similar to their mother, a close correlation is suggested between the lifetime reproductive success of mothers and daughters. For sons, too, maternal dominance affected their reproductive success: high-born males were more likely to become top-dominant (in another group). These data support the idea that natural selection has favored the evolution of a nepotistic rank system in this species, even if the annual benefits of dominance are small.