Effects of cohort,sex, and birth date on body development of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) fawns

We investigated the effects of the year of birth (cohort effect), sex and birth date on the variations observed in birth weight and postnatal growth rate in 209 newborn fawns marked during eight consecutive fawning seasons from a highly productive roe deer population under good nutritional conditions. Roe deer exhibited a fast body development with a birth weight of 1628 g and a postnatal growth rate of 139 g/day constant over the first 20 days of their life. As previously reported for dimorphic and polygynous ungulates, there was a marked cohort effect on the rate of body development. This variability was partly explained by climatic conditions during late gestation. When fewer than 5 days with rainfall over 5 mm occurred in April, fawns were heavier. High temperatures during April and during the winter could also be involved in fast body development of roe deer fawns. Sex of fawn did not affect roe deer growth pattern. This was expected on the basis of low sexual dimorphism in size and low polygyny level characteristic of roe deer. Lastly, the date of birth did not affect the body development of roe deer fawns. High constancy of mean birth dates and high synchrony of births observed in this population could account for this result.     

Survival and Cause-Specific Mortality of Neonatal Mule Deer Fawns,North-Central New Mexico

Abstract: Because of significant declines in mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) populations across New Mexico, USA, we investigated survival of fawns in north-central New Mexico, USA. We captured 19 fawns, 34 fawns, and 47 fawns in 2002, 2003, and 2004, respectively, and used fawn morphological measurements, habitat characteristics, and adult female (hereafter “female”) condition to model preweaning fawn survival. Survival was 0.0, 0.12, 0.52 for 2002, 2003, and 2004, respectively, and was related to birth mass (χ₁² = 9.5, P = 0.002), birth date (χ₁²= 8.4, P = 0.004), litter size (χ₂² = 9.4, P = 0.009), female body fat (χ₁² = 40.9, P < 0.001), annual precipitation (χ₁² = 35.0, P < 0.001), summer precipitation (χ₁²= 37.5, P < 0.001), and winter precipitation (χ₁² = 32.0, P < 0.001). Total ingesta-free body fat of females (β = 3.01, SE = 0.75; odds ratio = 20.19, 95% CI = 4.64-87.91) and birth mass of fawns (β = 1.188, SE = 0.428; odds ratio = 3.38, 95% CI = 1.42-7.59) were the best predictors of survival of individual fawns, although few of the logistic models differed in model selection criteria. Fawn survival in north-central New Mexico was driven by an interaction of total and seasonal precipitation and its effect on plant production, consequential effects on female nutrition, and ultimately, fawn birth attributes. Habitat conditions were so poor throughout north-central New Mexico during 2002 and 2003 (and likely during other drought yr) that, based upon birth attributes, few fawns could have survived regardless of proximate causes of mortality. In 2004, precipitation enhanced security cover, maternal body condition, birth attributes and, thus, survival of fawns. However, more habitat enhancements are needed to improve the nutritional quality of mule deer habitats in north-central New Mexico and further enhance maternal and fawn condition to recover mule deer populations in this region.     

Maternal behavior and early development of pampas deer (Ozotoceros bezoarticus) fawns in a semi-captive environment

Maternal–infant interaction and behaviors are adapted to reduce the risk of predation and increase the probability of survival of the species. We determined how mother–young encounters and communication change by the development of the fawn (locomotion and feeding) throughout lactation in pampas deer (Ozotocerus bezoarticus). We registered the behavior of mother–fawn dyads for the first 60 postnatal days. Our results revealed three main developmental stages in the fawn, hiding (~0–19 days), active (~20–39 days), and adult-like (~40–60 days). In the hiding stage, the fawn stayed hidden, closer to the mother, and spent less time active, the mothers vocalized more often than the fawn, licked the fawns intensively while nursing, and were responsible for initiating nursing. In the active stage, licking behavior and vocalizations of the mother decreased while the fawns ate solid food, initiated nursing bouts, and displayed bursts of running activity. Finally, in the adult-like stage, the fawn showed many signs of nutritional weaning, and similar patterns of activity to their mothers. However, the duration and frequency of nursing bouts were unchanged during the study. We described mother–fawn interaction in pampas deer for the first time, and found that increased running activity in fawns anticipates nutritional weaning. Our results also suggest that to adapt to the development of the fawn, mothers only modify the dynamics of interaction and encounters rather than the time invested in nursing, an activity that also plays a role in maintaining mother–young affiliation.     

Population-level response of coyotes to a pulsed resource event

From foraging theory, generalist predators should increase consumption of prey if prey availability increases. Pulsed resource events introduce a large influx of prey to predators that may exhibit a functional response of increased consumption rate on, or specialization to, this abundant food resource. We predicted that coyotes (Canis latrans) would respond functionally to numerical increases of neonate white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) during the pulsed resource event of parturition. We used howl surveys and deer camera surveys with occupancy modeling to estimate densities for coyotes, adult deer, and fawns, respectively, in Upper Peninsula of Michigan, USA, 2009–2011. We estimated biomass of adult and fawn deer consumed by coyotes during 2 periods [fawn limited mobility period (LMP) and social mobility period (SMP)] in May–August each year. Coyote densities were 0.32 and 0.37/km² for 2010–2011, respectively. Adult deer densities (3.7–3.9/km²) and fawn densities (0.6–1.3/km²) were similar across years. Overall, fawn hair occurrence in coyote scats was 2.3 times greater in LMP than SMP. Estimated consumption of fawns between periods (n = 157–880) by coyotes varied, suggesting a functional response, with increasing consumption of fawns relative to their availability. Coyotes, on average, consumed 2.2 times greater biomass of fawns than adults across years, and consumed 1.5 times greater fawn biomass, on average, during LMP than SMP. We suggest that consumption rates of coyotes is associated positively with increases in fawn density, and fawn consumption by coyotes follows predictions of optimal foraging theory during this pulsed resource event.     

Predator densities and white-tailed deer fawn survival

Predation is the dominant source of mortality for white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) <6 months old throughout North America. Yet, few white-tailed deer fawn survival studies have occurred in areas with 4 predator species or have considered concurrent densities of deer and predator species. We monitored survival and cause-specific mortality from birth to 6 months for 100 neonatal fawns during 2013–2015 in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, USA, while simultaneously estimating population densities of deer, American black bear (Ursus americanus), coyote (Canis latrans), bobcat (Lynx rufus), and gray wolf (Canis lupus). We estimated fawn predation risk in response to sex, birth mass, and date of birth. Six-month fawn survival pooled among years was 36%, and fawn mortality risk was not related to birth mass, date of birth, or sex. Estimated mean annual deer and predator densities were 334 fawns/100 km², 25.9 black bear/100 km², 23.8 coyotes/100 km², 3.8 bobcat/100 km², and 2.8 wolves/100 km². Despite lower estimated per-individual kill rates, coyotes and black bears were the leading sources of fawn mortality because they had greater densities relative to bobcats and wolves. Our results indicate that the presence of more predator species in a system is not entirely additive in its effect on fawn survival. © The Wildlife Society, 2019     

Attainment of early puberty in female black-tailed deer. (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus).

Female black-tailed deer fawns were hand-raised until four months of age and bred to bucks in their first fall. Over 50% conceived and subsequently gave birth to single fawns. Conceptions occurred later than for wild adults but at weights which equalled the weights of the heaviest wild fawns. A high proportion of the fawns born to fawn does died due to presumed lactation failure. Further work is continuing on the factors governing puberty attainment in this species.     

Survival of white-tailed deer fawns on Marine Corps Base Quantico

Some jurisdictions in the eastern United States have reduced harvest of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) because of perceived declines in recruitment and population size over the last decade. Although the restoration of American black bears (Ursus americanus) and the colonization of coyotes (Canis latrans) have increased fawn predation in some areas, limited information exists on how temporally dynamic resources and weather influence fawn survival. Therefore, we evaluated fawn survival probability, cause specific mortality, and if factors such as oak (Quercus spp.) mast abundance, winter severity, precipitation, and landscape composition influenced mortality risk on Marine Corps Base Quantico in northern Virginia, USA, from 2008 to 2019. We tracked 248 fawns outfitted with very high frequency radio-collars and predation was the leading cause of mortality (n = 42; 45%). We estimated survival to 133 days and survival pooling all years (2008–2019) was 0.50 (95% CI = 0.42–0.60). Increased annual red oak (Quercus spp.) mast abundance from the previous fall reduced mortality hazard for fawns. The longevity of our study revealed a link between fawn survival and a specific maternal resource (red oak mast) only available during gestation. Our results highlight the importance of oak mast in eastern deciduous forests and, more broadly, overwinter maternal condition on white-tailed deer recruitment.     

Forage quality's influence on mule deer fawns

In many mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) populations, recruitment of fawns drives population dynamics. The quality of food available to females and their fawns in summer and autumn may play an important role in fawn recruitment. We examined direct links between digestible energy (DE) content of food and the DE intake of females on the nutrient concentration of milk and between the nursing behavior, DE intake, growth, and survival in captive mule deer fawns. We offered females and their fawns diets that simulated the natural decline in DE content of forage from mid-summer to late autumn in many western landscapes. Fawns fed a higher DE diet weighed 14% more at the onset of winter, had fewer unsuccessful nursing attempts, consumed milk with more protein and energy, and had higher survival than fawns fed a low DE diet. Differences between fawn performances among treatments were greatest when diet quality began decreasing earlier in the summer. Because our results indicate that summer and autumn nutrition is likely to influence fawn recruitment, wildlife biologists should include metrics for summer precipitation and late autumn fawn mass in population models, and land managers should focus on methods for improving the nutritional carrying capacity of summer and early autumn habitats. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.     

Behavioral and physiological responses of forest musk deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Moschus berezovskii</Emphasis>) to experimental fawn manipulation

High stress response is an important factor impeding the breeding of wild animals in captivity. Experimental fawn manipulation is considered a suitable approach to reduce the negative effects of behavioral and physiological stress. The forest musk deer (Moschus berezovskii) is classified as “endangered” by the IUCN Red List due to over-exploitation for musk production. Musk is highly valued for its cosmetic and alleged pharmaceutical properties and has stimulated the enthusiasm of captive musk deer breeding in recent years. This study attempts to reduce behavioral and physiological stress responses in juvenile musk deer using experimental fawn manipulation. Habituation started 5 days after birth and lasted until weaning age (90 days). We determined the behavioral stress response at the age of 30, 60, 90, 150, and 360 days by measuring acceptance or rejection of three treatment intensities (i.e., stroking, embracement) and quantified behavioral responses (urination, approaching the investigator). At the same time, physiological stress parameters were established, measuring the fecal glucocorticosteroid metabolite (FGM) concentration. Our results indicate that fawn manipulation initially reduced the behavioral stress, but after termination of treatments, stress symptoms reoccurred. We detected no difference in the FGM concentrations between treatment and control groups, suggesting that the experimental fawn manipulation did not decrease the physiological stress response. This implies that behavioral stress reduction cannot be sustained if the physiological stress remains unaltered. We argue that the socio-positive reactions of musk deer fawns to humans could be phenotypic and that the physiological stress response rather reflects their intrinsic characteristics than a successful manipulation.     

Maternal investment and reproductive success in Chinese water deer

Among cervids, maternal investment, estimated as the amount of resources and care allocated to the offspring, was expected to be related to species body size. Therefore, maternal investment in a herd of captive Chinese water deer Hydropotes inermis, a relatively small species of cervid, was investigated over 3 years. Except during the lactation period, reproductive females spent about 2-fold more time resting than feeding. During lactation, the amount of time spent feeding increased highly (25.3 min/h during lactation vs 17.3 min/h during the gestation period). Females spent less than 30% of time in communal behaviours with offspring. They did not reject alien fawns during this care period. Frequency and duration of suckling events decreased exponentially from the second week onwards. More than 10% of suckling bouts were non-filial. Prenatal investment leads to a mean litter mass (about 12% of maternal mass) higher than in most cervid species. Postnatal investment in fawns represents a daily mass gain of ca. 85 g/d during the first 2 weeks, without any sexual difference. Female production, timing and synchrony of births and survival of fawns characterized reproductive success. Seventy percent of mature females gave birth, with a mean of 1.9 offspring per female. The sex ratio was even. Births were synchronous, 80% of births occurring in 25 days. In this herd, 0.74 fawn per female was successfully weaned and 0.56 fawn per female survived through their first year. Based on these results we conclude that reproductive strategy of Chinese water deer was efficient and characterized by mother-offspring relationships typical of hiders and high levels of pre- and postnatal investments. This strategy seems typical of small species of cervids without marked sexual dimorphism.[Current Zoology 55(2):102-110,2009].     

Winter fawn survival in black-tailed deer populations affected by hair loss syndrome

Overwinter fawn mortality associated with hair loss syndrome (HLS) is anecdotally thought to be important in declines of Columbian black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus) populations in Washington and Oregon (USA). We determined prevalence of HLS in black-tailed deer, September and April fawn:doe ratios, and minimum overwinter survival rates of fawns for selected game management units (GMUs) in western Washington from 1999 to 2001. Prevalence of HLS ranged from 6% to 74% in fawns and 4% to 33% in does. Minimum fawn survival ranged from 0.56 to 0.83 and was unrelated to prevalence of HLS in either does (r=0.005, P=0.991) or fawns (r=-0.215, P=0.608). The prevalence of HLS in either does or fawns was also unrelated to either fall fawn:doe ratios (HLS does: r=-0.132, P=0.779; HLS fawns: r=0.130, P=0.760) or spring fawn:doe ratios (HLS does: r=-0.173, P=0.711; HLS fawns: r=-0.020, P=0.963). However, the prevalence of HLS in does and fawns was strongly related (r=0.942, P=0.002), and GMUs with high prevalence of HLS had lower deer population densities (fawns: r=-0.752, P=0.031; does: r=-0.813, P=0.026). Increased overwinter mortality of fawns because of HLS was not supported by our data. Decreased production of fawns, increased summer mortality of fawns, or both were seen in six of eight study GMU-year combinations. Observed rates of productivity and minimum fawn survival were inadequate to maintain population size in five of eight study GMU-year combinations, assuming an annual doe survival rate of 0.75. The influence of deer condition and population health on adult survival, fawn production, preweaning fawn survival, parasitism, and prevalence of HLS in both fawns and adults need to be clarified to identify what factors are limiting black-tailed deer productivity.     

Density-dependent responses of fawn cohort body mass in two contrasting roe deer populations

We investigated the influence of population density on juvenile body mass in two contrasting roe deer populations, in Sweden (Bogesund) and France (Chizé), in which density was monitored for ≥15 years. We investigated the effect of population density and climatic conditions on cohort performance. We predicted that: (1) body mass of growing fawns should be sensitive to environmental changes, showing marked between-year variation (i.e., cohort effects), (2) fawns in the less productive (weakly seasonal, weakly predictable summer weather) habitat of Chizé should show stronger density-dependent responses due to more severe food competition during summer than fawns in the more productive (markedly seasonal, moderately predictable summer weather) habitat of Bogesund, and (3) fawns at Bogesund should be heavier both in absolute terms and relative to their size than their conspecifics in Chizé due to a higher degree of fat accumulation in northern environments. In both study sites we found marked cohort variation and clear effects of density, with body mass varying by as much as 29% over years. While neither summer nor winter climate influenced fawn body mass at Bogesund, fawns tended to be lighter after summers with high temperatures at Chizé. In addition, fawns were heavier after acorn mast years experienced in utero at Bogesund. As expected, the strength of the density-dependent response of fawn body mass was greater at Chizé than at Bogesund. For a given density, male fawns were consistently heavier than females in both sites. Lastly, both sexes at Bogesund had higher absolute body mass and were larger for a given body size than in Chizé. Our results clearly demonstrate that absolute density is a poor predictor of roe deer performance and supports the view that habitat quality has an overwhelming importance for determining fawn body mass in roe deer populations.     

Contributions of forage competition, harvest, and climate fluctuation to changes in population growth of northern white-tailed deer

Recently there has been considerable interest in determining the relative roles of endogenous (density-dependent) and exogenous (density-independent) factors in driving the population dynamics of free-ranging ungulates. We used time-series analysis to estimate the relative contributions of density-dependent forage competition, climatic fluctuation, and harvesting on the population dynamics of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in Nova Scotia, Canada, from 1983 to 2000. A model incorporating the population density 2 years previous, an interaction term for the harvest of females and population density 2 years previous, and the total snowfall during the previous 2 winters explained 80% of the variation in inter-annual population growth rate. Natality of adult females was negatively related to deer density during the present winter, whereas that of yearlings may have been correlated with the snowfall of three winters previous. Natality of fawns was related to deer density and total snowfall during the previous winter. Coyotes (Canis latrans) prey extensively on deer fawns in northeastern North America and the annual harvest of snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus), the major alternate prey of coyotes, explained 48% of the inter-annual variation in fawn recruitment. The proportions of fawn, yearling, and adult deer suffering from severe malnutrition during late winter were all correlated with deer density during the present winter. We conclude that the limiting effects of winter weather on over-winter survival of deer may be cumulative over two consecutive winters. During the late 1980s, density dependence and winter severity acted in concert to effect substantial declines in deer population growth both by effecting winter losses directly and by exacerbating predation by coyotes. During this period liberal harvesting did not relieve density-dependent forage competition and probably accelerated the decline.     

Spatial variation in springtime food resources influences the winter body mass of roe deer fawns

It is well established that the dynamics of mammalian populations vary in time, in relation to density and weather, and often in interaction with phenotypic differences (sex, age and social status). Habitat quality has recently been identified as another significant source of individual variability in vital rates of deer, including roe deer where spatial variations in fawn body mass were found to be only about a tenth of temporal variations. The approach used was to classify the habitat into blocks a priori, and to analyse variation in animal performance among the predefined areas. In a fine-grained approach, here we use data collected over 24 years on 1,235 roe deer fawns captured at known locations and the plant species composition sampled in 2001 at 578 sites in the Chizé forest to determine the spatial structure at a fine scale of both vegetation and winter body mass of fawns, and then to determine links between the two. Space and time played a nearly equal role in determining fawn body masses of both sexes, each accounting for about 20% of variance and without any interaction between them. The spatial distribution of fawn body mass was perennial over the 24 years considered and predicted values showed a 2 kg range according to location in the reserve, which is much greater than suggested in previous work and is enough to have strong effects on fawn survival. The spatial distribution and the range of predicted body masses were closely similar in males and females. The result of this study is therefore consistent with the view that the life history traits of roe deer are only weakly influenced by sexual selection. The occurrence of three plant species that are known to be important food items in spring/summer roe deer diets, hornbeam (Carpinus betulus), bluebell (Hyacinthoides sp.) and Star of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum sp.) was positively related to winter fawn body mass. The occurrence of species known to be avoided in spring/summer roe deer diets [e.g. butcher's broom (Ruscus aculeatus) and beech (Fagus sylvatica)], was negatively related to fawn body mass. We conclude that the spatial variation in the body mass of fawns in winter in this forest is as important as the temporal variation, and that the distribution of plant species that are actively selected during spring and summer is an important determinant of spatial variation in winter fawn body mass. The availability of these plants is therefore likely to be a key factor in the dynamics of roe deer populations.     

饲养林麝的种群特征和幼麝的存活研究

对饲养在上海崇明岛东平林场的林麝种群特征以及1998～2000 年间该种群所出生的74 只幼麝存活情况进行分析研究。结果表明: 该林麝种群中能繁殖的个体占51.1 % , 种群数量逐渐增长。种群存活率曲线呈C 型,说明林麝的死亡主要发生在幼麝时期。从不同年龄段性比变化来看, 初生幼麝的性比接近1∶1 , 由于雌幼麝比雄幼麝具有更高的存活率( P < 0.05) , 进入亚成体以后雄性比例逐渐下降, 显示幼麝时期存在偏雄性死亡。早出生幼麝的存活率明显高于晚出生幼麝( P < 0.05) 。引起幼麝死亡的主要原因是疾病(45. 9 %) 。     

MULE DEER SURVIVAL AMONG ADJACENT POPULATIONS IN SOUTHWEST IDAHO

Abstract: We investigated survival and cause-specific mortality of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) on 3 distinct winter ranges in southwest Idaho from 1992 to 1997 to identify demographic variation and potential limiting factors based on a sample of 447 radiocollared deer. During winters 1995–1996 and 1996–1997, we modeled overwinter fawn mortality based on early winter mass, sex, activity, and habitat use variables. Annual survival rates of adult mule deer varied among the 3 adjacent study areas (χ₂² = 10.93, P = 0.004). Overwinter deer survival also varied among study areas (χ₂² = 8.00, P = 0.018), and the study area X year, study area X sex, and study area X age interactions were all significant (P ≤ 0.018). Overwinter survival differences among the study areas were not consistent over time or among sexes and ages of deer. Winter malnutrition was the main cause of mortality for both adults and fawns during the severe winter of 1992–1993, when overall survival was low. Excluding harvest, predation was the major proximate cause of deer mortality during 1993–97 when overall survival was higher. The probability of winter fawn mortality increased with lower mass (χ₂¹ = 7.38, P = 0.007), being male (χ₂¹ = 5.61, P = 0.018), smaller group sizes (χ₂¹ = 3.62, P = 0.057), and using steeper slopes (χ₂¹ = 3.05, P = 0.081). Smaller group sizes and use of steep slopes corresponded to conditions where predators were more successful. Our findings suggest that coyote (Canis latrans) predation was largely compensatory whereas mountain lion (Puma concolor) predation was apparently independent of animal condition and dependent more on deer habitat use. Early winter fawn mass was a better predictor of overwinter fawn survival than a suite of winter resource use variables, lending further support for use of fawn mass to predict winters where fawn mortality may be high. No single population in this study could be used to make reliable inferences regarding deer survival in the other populations. Survival rate measurements should be used cautiously to make inferences in populations where survival has not been directly measured.     

Sarcocystis hemionilatrantis (Sp. N.) life cycle in mule deer and coyotes.

Fifteen coyotes (Canis latrans) shed sporulated sporocysts in their feces after eating freshly ground skeletal muscles from a mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) infected with microscopic-sized cysts of Sarcocystis. Sporocysts were shed intermittently from 12 to 36 days after ingestion of the infected meat. Sporocyst size averaged 14.4 X 9.3 mum. Eleven mule deer fawns orally inoculated with these sporocysts became infected and 9 of 11 died between post-inoculation days (PID) 27 and 63. Clinical signs of anorexia, weight loss, pyrexia and weakness were evident prior to death. A calf (Bos taurus) and two lambs (Ovis aries) orally inoculated with these sporocysts did not become infected and remained healthy throughout the experiments. Similarly, uninoculated control animals consisting of three mule deer fawns, two lambs and one calf remained healthy during the experiment. Preliminary histologic examinations conducted on selected tissues from all animals revealed microscopic-sized schizogonous stages in macrophages, between muscle fibers and near blood vessels in the esophagus, heart, biceps femoris, semi-membranosus, diaphragm and tongue from seven of eight fawns which died between PID 27 and 39. Developing or mature muscle cysts were not found in fawn tissue until PID 60. Sarcocysts were found in the three infected fawns examined after this time. Muscle cysts or earlier schizont stages were not found in tissues from the inoculated or uninoculated calves and lambs. A single muscle cyst was found in one control fawn; the other two control fawns were negative for both muscle cysts and other schizogonous stages. These results established that the life cycle of this species of Sarcocystis can be completed with coyotes as the definitive host and mule deer as the intermediate host. Based on the demonstrated host specificity and earlier findings, the name Sarcocystis hemionilatrantis is proposed for this parasite of mule deer and coyotes.     

Description and epidemiological implications of <Emphasis Type="Italic">S. scabiei</Emphasis> infection in roe deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Capreolus capreolus</Emphasis>) originating from chamois (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Rupicapra rupicapra</Emphasis>)

The authors describe a case of Sarcoptes scabiei transmission from a chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) kid to three roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) fawns kept in captive cohabitation in a wildlife rehabilitation centre for approximately 4 months. Symptoms in the two male fawns started developing 1 week after skin lesions were noticed in the kid, whereas a delayed (75 days later) appearance of scabies signs was observed in the female fawn. A severe generalised form of scabies rapidly developed in a male fawn, but lesions in the other two healed after triple inoculation of ivermectin at 15 days intervals. These roe deer were monitored for specific anti-S. scabiei antibodies with an immunoblotting technique. The strongest antibody response was exhibited during the clinical phase of the infection and then rapidly declined post-treatment. Interestingly, the female fawn developed immunoglobulin G to S. scabiei proteins more than 2 months before the onset of clinical scabies. Since all captive roe deer appeared sensitive to infection with S. scabiei var. rupicaprae, the authors hypothesise that the sporadic frequency of spontaneous scabies in this Cervid host may be attributed to avoidance of direct contacts with moribund or recently dead scabietic chamois, and/or to a self-limiting (and therefore difficult to detect) course of the disease after infrequent infectious contacts and/or exposure to lower infectious doses than in the described episode.     

Costs of parturition and rearing in female sika deer (Cervus nippon)

The costs of parturition and lactation of female sika deer on Kinkazan Island (9.6 km(2) in size), northern Japan, which live at a high density (about 50 deer/km(2)), were evaluated by comparison of body weights of 481 females measured during a 15 year study (1993-2008). Weight data were chosen from only females that did not give birth in the preceding year. The mean body weight of females that did not give birth ("yelds") was significantly lower (P < 0.001) than that of females who gave birth ("milks"); yelds' body weight was 93.1% and 83.5% that of milks in the preceding and parturition years, respectively. The yelds increased in body weight by the following March by 8.2% (P < 0.001), whereas milks did not. Among the milks, those whose fawns survived until the following May ("rearing milks") lost body weight by 14.9% (P < 0.001). Milks who lost fawns within a week after birth ("early fawn-less milks") did not lose body weight (P = 0.583), while those whose fawns died after the first autumn but died before May ("late fawn-less milks") lost body weight by 19.9% (P < 0.001). These results indicate that sika deer females do not enter estrus unless they are heavy enough, and that both parturition and rearing are costly for sika deer mothers living in high-density conditions.     

Spatial ecology of white-tailed deer fawns in the northern Great Plains: Implications of loss of conservation reserve program grasslands

Few studies have evaluated how wildlife, and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in particular, respond to Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) grasslands. We conducted a 3-year study (2007–2009) to determine the influence of CRP on fawn ecology during a time of declining CRP enrollment. We captured and radiocollared 81 fawn white-tailed deer during 15 May to 15 June 2007–2009 in north-central South Dakota, collected 6,505 locations, and documented 70 summer home ranges. Mean summer home ranges increased temporally during 2007–2009 (P < 0.001) and corresponded to a 41% loss of CRP grasslands in the area (2.3% loss in land cover and approx. 21% loss in cover habitat in the study area) over the duration of the study. Additionally, mean movement between daily locations increased (P < 0.001) from 2007 to 2009. Analysis of covariance models indicated that change in CRP influenced home-range size, and change in CRP and wheat influenced daily movement. Smaller home ranges and reduced movements were associated with greater quantity of CRP available to fawns, and increased movements were associated with more acreage of wheat available to fawns. Fawns shifted resource selection during the summer at a mean age ranging from 48.8 days to 58.6 days, and this shift was associated with height of corn (83–87 cm). During early summer, fawns consistently selected for CRP; selection of wheat progressed temporally from avoidance in 2007 to selection in 2009. During late summer, fawns consistently selected for corn habitat and used CRP at least in proportion to its availability. Reduction in CRP-grasslands seemed to increase fawn home-range size and daily movements and, influenced change in resource selection to wheat. Current legislation mandates continued decrease in CRP enrollment and concomitant increase in the planting of corn for ethanol production. Management of habitat throughout the grasslands of the Northern Great Plains that maximizes cover habitats would provide neonates with adequate cover for protection from predators. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.