N-乙酰氨基葡萄糖转移酶（OGT）研究进展

O-GlcNAc是一种广泛存在于蛋白质丝/苏氨酸残基上的动态、可逆的蛋白翻译后修饰,它广泛分布在细胞浆和细胞核中,参与调节多种细胞途径。研究表明蛋白的O-GlcNAc糖基化与神经退行性疾病、糖尿病和癌症等疾病相关。在体内,O-GlcNAc动态修饰由N-乙酰氨基葡萄糖转移酶（OGT）和N-乙酰氨基葡萄糖苷酶（OGA）协同完成。近年来,OGT逐渐成为糖生物学领域的研究热点,在其结构、作用机制及晶体学方面取得了快速发展。     

Developmental Regulation of Protein O-GlcNAcylation, O-GlcNAc Transferase, and O-GlcNAcase in Mammalian Brain

O-GlcNAcylation is a common posttranslational modification of nucleocytoplasmic proteins by β-N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc). The dynamic addition and removal of O-GlcNAc groups to and from proteins are catalyzed by O-linked N-acetylglucosamine transferase (O-GlcNAc transferase, OGT) and β-N-acetylglucosaminidase (O-GlcNAcase, OGA), respectively. O-GlcNAcylation often modulates protein phosphorylation and regulates several cellular signaling and functions, especially in the brain. However, its developmental regulation is not well known. Here, we studied protein O-GlcNAcylation, OGT, and OGA in the rat brain at various ages from embryonic day 15 to the age of 2 years. We found a gradual decline of global protein O-GlcNAcylation during developmental stages and adulthood. This decline correlated positively to the total protein phosphorylation at serine residues, but not at threonine residues. The expression of OGT and OGA isoforms was regulated differently at various ages. Immunohistochemical studies revealed ubiquitous distribution of O-GlcNAcylation at all ages. Strong immunostaining of O-GlcNAc, OGT, and OGA was observed mostly in neuronal cell bodies and processes, further suggesting the role of O-GlcNAc modification of neuronal proteins in the brain. These studies provide fundamental knowledge of age-dependent protein modification by O-GlcNAc and will help guide future studies on the role of O-GlcNAcylation in the mammalian brain.     

Glucose deprivation stimulates O-GlcNAc modification of proteins through up-regulation of O-linked N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase

O-Linked N-acetylglucosamine (O-GlcNAc) is a post-translational modification of proteins that functions as a nutrient sensing mechanism. Here we report on regulation of O-GlcNAcylation over a broad range of glucose concentrations. We have discovered a significant induction of O-GlcNAc modification of a limited number of proteins under conditions of glucose deprivation. Beginning 12 h after treatment, glucose-deprived human hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) cells demonstrate a 7.8-fold increase in total O-GlcNAc modification compared with cells cultured in normal glucose (5 mm; p = 0.008). Some of the targets of glucose deprivation-induced O-GlcNAcylation are distinct from those modified in response to high glucose (20 mm) or glucosamine (10 mm) treatment, suggesting differential targeting with glucose deprivation and glucose excess. O-GlcNAcylation of glycogen synthase is significantly increased with glucose deprivation, and this O-GlcNAc increase contributes to a 60% decrease (p = 0.004) in glycogen synthase activity. Increased O-GlcNAc modification is not mediated by increased UDP-GlcNAc, the rate-limiting substrate for O-GlcNAcylation. Rather, the mRNA for nucleocytoplasmic O-linked N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase (OGT) increases 3.4-fold within 6 h of glucose deprivation (p = 0.006). Within 12 h, OGT protein increases 1.7-fold (p = 0.01) compared with normal glucose-treated cells. In addition, 12-h glucose deprivation leads to a 49% decrease in O-GlcNAcase protein levels (p = 0.03). We conclude that increased O-GlcNAc modification stimulated by glucose deprivation results from increased OGT and decreased O-GlcNAcase levels and that these changes affect cell metabolism, thus inactivating glycogen synthase.     

O-GlcNAc Transferase/Host Cell Factor C1 Complex Regulates Gluconeogenesis by Modulating PGC-1α Stability

A major cause of hyperglycemia in diabetic patients is inappropriate hepatic gluconeogenesis. PGC-1α is a master regulator of gluconeogenesis, and its activity is controlled by various posttranslational modifications. A small portion of glucose metabolizes through the hexosamine biosynthetic pathway, which leads to O-linked β-N-acetylglucosamine (O-GlcNAc) modification of cytoplasmic and nuclear proteins. Using a proteomic approach, we identified a broad variety of proteins associated with O-GlcNAc transferase (OGT), among which host cell factor C1 (HCF-1) is highly abundant. HCF-1 recruits OGT to O-GlcNAcylate PGC-1α, and O-GlcNAcylation facilitates the binding of the deubiquitinase BAP1, thus protecting PGC-1α from degradation and promoting gluconeogenesis. Glucose availability modulates gluconeogenesis through the regulation of PGC-1α O-GlcNAcylation and stability by the OGT/HCF-1 complex. Hepatic knockdown of OGT and HCF-1 improves glucose homeostasis in diabetic mice. These findings define the OGT/HCF-1 complex as a glucose sensor and key regulator of gluconeogenesis, shedding light on new strategies for treating diabetes.     

New ELISA-based method for the detection of O-GlcNAc transferase activity in vitro

O-GlcNAcylation is a dynamic, reversible, post-translational modification that regulates many cellular processes. O-GlcNAc transferase (OGT) is the sole enzyme transferring N-acetylglucosamine from uridine diphosphate (UDP)-GlcNAc to selected serine/threonine residues of cytoplasm and nucleus proteins. Aberrant of OGT activity is associated with several diseases, suggesting OGT as a novel therapeutic target. In this study, we created a new enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA)-based method for detection of OGT activity. First, casein kinase II (CKII), a well-known OGT substrate, was coated onto ELISA plate. Second, the GlcNAc transferred by OGT from UDP-GlcNAc to CKII was detected using an antibody to O-GlcNAc and then the horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-labeled secondary antibody. At last, 3,3′,5,5′-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB), the substrate of HRP, was used to detect the O-GlcNAcylation level of CKII which reflected the activity of OGT. Based on a series of optimization experiments, the RL2 antibody was selected for O-GlcNAc detection and the concentrations of CKII, OGT, and UDP-GlcNAc were determined in this study. ST045849, a commercial OGT inhibitor, was used to verify the functionality of the system. Altogether, this study showed a method that could be applied to detect OGT activity and screen OGT inhibitors.     

O-linked β-N-acetylglucosamine supports p38 MAPK activation by high glucose in glomerular mesangial cells

Hyperglycemia augments flux through the hexosamine biosynthetic pathway and subsequent O-linkage of single β-N-acetyl-d-glucosamine moieties to serine and threonine residues on cytoplasmic and nuclear proteins (O-GlcNAcylation). Perturbations in this posttranslational modification have been proposed to promote glomerular matrix accumulation in diabetic nephropathy, but clear evidence and mechanism are lacking. We tested the hypothesis that O-GlcNAcylation enhances profibrotic signaling in rat mesangial cells. An adenovirus expressing shRNA directed against O-GlcNAc transferase (OGT) markedly reduced basal and high-glucose-stimulated O-GlcNAcylation. Interestingly, O-GlcNAc depletion prevented high-glucose-induced p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase phosphorylation. Downstream of p38, O-GlcNAc controlled the expression of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, fibronectin, and transforming growth factor-β, important factors in matrix accumulation in diabetic nephropathy. Treating mesangial cells with thiamet-G, a highly selective inhibitor of O-GlcNAc-specific hexosaminidase (O-GlcNAcase), increased O-GlcNAcylation and p38 phosphorylation. The high-glucose-stimulated kinase activity of apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1), an upstream MAPK kinase kinase for p38 that is negatively regulated by Akt, was inhibited by OGT shRNA. Akt Thr(308) and Ser(473) phosphorylation were enhanced following OGT shRNA expression in high-glucose-exposed mesangial cells, but high-glucose-induced p38 phosphorylation was not attenuated by OGT shRNA in cells pretreated with the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitor LY-294002. OGT shRNA also reduced high-glucose-stimulated reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation. In contrast, diminished O-GlcNAcylation caused elevated ERK phosphorylation and PKCδ membrane translocation. Thus, O-GlcNAcylation is coupled to profibrotic p38 MAPK signaling by high glucose in part through Akt and possibly through ROS.     

Increased O-GlcNAc levels correlate with decreased O-GlcNAcase levels in Alzheimer disease brain

The potential role of the posttranslational modification of proteins with O-linked N-acetyl-β-d-glucosamine (O-GlcNAc) in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer disease (AD) has been studied extensively, yet the exact function of O-GlcNAc in AD remains elusive. O-GlcNAc cycling is facilitated by only two highly conserved enzymes: O-GlcNAc transferase (OGT) catalyzes the addition, while O-GlcNAcase (OGA) catalyzes the removal of GlcNAc from proteins. Studies analyzing global O-GlcNAc levels in AD brain have produced inconsistent results and the reasons for altered O-GlcNAcylation in AD are still poorly understood. In this study, we show a 1.2-fold increase in cytosolic protein O-GlcNAc modification in AD brain when compared to age-matched controls. Interestingly, O-GlcNAc changes seem to be attributable to differential modification of a few individual proteins. While our finding of augmented O-GlcNAcylation concurs with some reports, it is contrary to others demonstrating decreased O-GlcNAc levels in AD brain. These conflicting results emphasize the need for further studies providing conclusive evidence on the subject of O-GlcNAcylation in AD. We further demonstrate that, while OGT protein levels are unaffected in AD, OGA protein levels are significantly decreased to 75% of those in control samples. In addition, augmented protein O-GlcNAc modification correlates to decreased OGA protein levels in AD subjects. While OGA inhibitors are already being tested for AD treatment, our results provide a strong indication that the general subject of O-GlcNAcylation and specifically its regulation by OGA and OGT in AD need further investigation to conclusively elucidate its potential role in AD pathogenesis and treatment.     

Quantitative regulation of nuclear pore complex proteins by O-GlcNAcylation

The nuclear pore complex (NPC) is a macromolecular assembly consisting of approximately 30 different proteins called nucleoporins. Several nucleoporins are O-GlcNAcylated, which is a post-translational modification in which the monosaccharide β-N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) is attached to serine or threonine residues within proteins. However, the biological significance of this modification on nucleoporins remains obscure. Here we found that Nup62 and Nup88 protein levels were significantly decreased upon knockdown of O-GlcNAc transferase (OGT), which catalyzes the O-GlcNAcylation of intracellular proteins. Although Nup88, unlike Nup62, was not recognized by an anti-O-GlcNAc antibody or WGA–HRP, knockdown of Nup62 caused a reduction in Nup88 protein levels, suggesting that the observed decrease in Nup88 in OGT knocked-down cells is due to a decrease in Nup62. Furthermore, we found that Nup88 was preferentially associated with O-GlcNAcylated Nup62 compared with non-O-GlcNAcylated Nup62. These results indicate that Nup62 protein levels are primarily maintained by O-GlcNAcylation and that Nup88 is quantitatively regulated through its interaction with O-GlcNAcylated Nup62.     

Site-specific interplay between O-GlcNAcylation and phosphorylation in cellular regulation

Ser(Thr)-O-linked β-N-acetylglucosamine (O-GlcNAc) is a ubiquitous modification of nucleocytoplasmic proteins. Extensive crosstalk exists between O-GlcNAcylation and phosphorylation, which regulates signaling in response to nutrients/stress. The development of novel O-GlcNAc detection and enrichment methods has improved our understanding of O-GlcNAc functions. Mass spectrometry has revealed O-GlcNAc’s many interactions with phosphorylation-mediated signaling. However, mechanisms regulating O-GlcNAcylation and phosphorylation are quite different. Phosphorylation is catalyzed by hundreds of distinct kinases. In contrast, in mammals, uridine diphospho-N-acetylglucosamine:polypeptide β-N-acetylglucosaminyl transferase (OGT) and β-D-N-acetylglucosaminidase (OGA) are encoded by single highly conserved genes. Both OGT’s and OGA’s specificities are determined by their transient associations with many other proteins to create a multitude of specific holoenzymes. The extensive crosstalk between O-GlcNAcylation and phosphorylation represents a new paradigm for cellular signaling.     

O-GlcNAcase is essential for embryonic development and maintenance of genomic stability

Dysregulation of O-GlcNAc modification catalyzed by O-GlcNAc transferase (OGT) and O-GlcNAcase (OGA) contributes to the etiology of chronic diseases of aging, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and Alzheimer's disease. Here we found that natural aging in wild-type mice was marked by a decrease in OGA and OGT protein levels and an increase in O-GlcNAcylation in various tissues. Genetic disruption of OGA resulted in constitutively elevated O-GlcNAcylation in embryos and led to neonatal lethality with developmental delay. Importantly, we observed that serum-stimulated cell cycle entry induced increased O-GlcNAcylation and decreased its level after release from G2/M arrest, indicating that O-GlcNAc cycling by OGT and OGA is required for precise cell cycle control. Constitutively, elevated O-GlcNAcylation by OGA disruption impaired cell proliferation and resulted in mitotic defects with downregulation of mitotic regulators. OGA loss led to mitotic defects including cytokinesis failure and binucleation, increased lagging chromosomes, and micronuclei formation. These findings suggest an important role for O-GlcNAc cycling by OGA in embryonic development and the regulation of the maintenance of genomic stability linked to the aging process.     

Roles of the tetratricopeptide repeat domain in O-GlcNAc transferase targeting and protein substrate specificity

The abundant and dynamic post-translational modification of nuclear and cytosolic proteins by beta-O-linked N-acetylglucosamine (O-GlcNAc) is catalyzed by O-GlcNAc-transferase (OGT). Recently, we reported the identification of a novel family of OGT-interacting proteins (OIPs) that interact strongly with the tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR) domain of OGT (Iyer, S. P., Akimoto, Y., and Hart, G. W. (2003) J. Biol. Chem. 278, 5399-5409). Members of this family are modified by O-GlcNAc and are excellent substrates of OGT. Here, we further investigated the role of the TPR domain in the O-GlcNAcylation of OIP106, one of the members of this OIP family. Using N-terminal deletions, we first identified the region of OIP106 that binds OGT, termed the OGT-interacting domain (OID). Deletion analysis indicated that TPRs 2-6 of OGT interact with the OID of OIP106. The apparent Km of OGT for the OID of OIP106 is 3.35 microm. Unlike small peptide substrates, glycosylation of the OID was dependent upon its interaction with the first 6 TPRs of OGT. Furthermore, the isolated TPR domain of OGT competitively inhibited glycosylation of the OID protein, but did not inhibit glycosylation of a 12-amino acid casein kinase II peptide substrate, providing kinetic evidence for the role of the TPR domain as a protein substrate docking site. Additionally, both the OID of OIP106 and nucleoporin p62 competed with each other for glycosylation by OGT. These studies support the model that the catalytic subunit of OGT achieves both high specificity and a remarkable diversity of substrates by complexing with a variety of targeting proteins via its TPR protein-protein interaction domains.