BIOCHEMICAL HETEROPHYLLY AND FLAVONOID EVOLUTION IN NORTH AMERICAN POTAMOGETON (POTAMOGETONACEAE)

Morphologically heterophyllous species of Potamogeton also commonly display biochemical heterophylly with respect to flavonoid compounds. Generally, floating leaves contain an assortment of flavonoids, whereas submersed leaves often exhibit reduced flavonoid profiles. In strictly submersed (homophyllous) species, two patterns occur. Linear-leaved species have few flavonoids and their biochemical profiles resemble those of submersed leaves of heterophyllous species. Broad-leaved homophyllous species possess flavonoid profiles more similar to those of the floating leaves of heterophyllous species. Numerical analysis of these chemical data is consistent with phylogenetic relationships within the genus derived independently on the basis of morphological and chromosomal data. Glycoflavones, which are probably maintained in floating leaves because of their UV filtering ability, exhibit the most pronounced biochemical heterophylly in Potamogeton. The lack of glycoflavones in submersed leaves of heterophyllous species and in linear-leaved homophyllous species is attributable to the ability of naturally colored water to significantly absorb harmful UV radiation. These observations provide strong support for earlier hypotheses suggesting the importance of flavonoid evolution in the conquest of exposed terrestrial habitats by plants.     

天然次生林三种不同生境刺五加丁香苷和总黄酮含量的研究

采用高效液相和分光光度的方法对天然次生林林内、林隙和林缘三种不同生境下刺五加(Acanthopanax senticosus)主要次生代谢产物丁香苷和总黄酮的含量差异进行了研究。结果表明:不同生境条件下,刺五加不同部位丁香苷的含量不同。生境的变化对枝中丁香苷的含量影响最大,林内生境枝中丁香苷的含量最低,林隙生境较高,林缘生境最高。而茎基部丁香苷的含量规律为林内生境最高,林隙生境次之,林缘生境最低。三种不同生境中根和根茎丁香苷含量的变化没有明显的规律性。刺五加全株均含有黄酮类物质,其中叶和花中黄酮的含量较高。其总黄酮含量受环境的影响较大,在林内生境,刺五加叶、花和果中总黄酮的含量最低,林隙生境有所提高,而林缘生境中含量最高。叶片总黄酮含量与叶面积指数呈负相关,叶面积指数越大,叶片中总黄酮的含量越低。对于刺五加的枝、茎干、根和根茎而言, 1~3年枝总黄酮在各个生境之间没有显著的差异;而茎干中总黄酮的含量表现为林内生境显著的高于林隙生境和林缘生境,后两者没有明显的差异;与茎干不同,林内生境根和根茎中总黄酮的含量最低,林隙和林缘的较高。     

Parallel Evolution,not Always so Parallel: Comparison of Small Benthic Charr, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Salvelinus alpinus</Emphasis>, from Grímsnes and Thingvallavatn,Iceland

Synopsis Iceland is unique in terms of geologically young freshwater systems and rapid adaptations of fresh water fishes to diverse habitats, e.g. lava with ground water flow. Iceland has six species of freshwater fishes, including Arctic charr, Salvelinus alpinus. Previous research has shown great diversity within this species. Four different morphs of Arctic charr are found in one lake, Thingvallavatn, including a small benthivorous charr. Similar populations of small benthic charr are known from several other Icelandic freshwater locations, including Nautavakir in Grímsnes. Our comparison of the small benthic charr morphs in Thingvallavatn and in Grímsnes showed that they are similar in morphology but distinguishable in several characteristics. Small benthic charr in Grímsnes and Thingvallavatn demonstrate similar adaptations and are an example of parallel evolution. However, subtle morphological differences between them indicate further specialized adaptations at each location.     

Exkret-Flavonoide bei Höheren Pflanzen arider Gebiete

Flavonoids generally occur in higher plants as water-soluble glycosides. However, lipophilic flavonoid aglycones can be excreted by glandular trichomes or extruded through the cuticle. They are accumulated on the plant surface as constituents of leaf resins or thin epicuticular layers. External flavonoid aglycones are found in various families throughout the higher plants, but appear to be most abundant in theAsteraceae. They occur relatively frequently in plants of (semi-)arid habitats. It is advantageous for chemotaxonomic studies that the structural diversity of exudate flavonoids is normally greater than that of the tissue glycosides in these plants.

Vorgetragen auf der Tagung der Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft, Wien, September 1984.     

Taxonomic significance of flavonoid variation in temperate species of Nothofagus

Forty-two flavonoids and a stilbene (pinosylvin) were identified in the leaf exudates of 11 temperate species of Nothofagus from South America, Australia and New Zealand. The flavonoid profiles demonstrate significant taxonomic value at the subgeneric level. Most species of subgenus Fuscospora are characterized by the presence of pinosylvin, galangin and galangin methyl ethers. Kaempferol-type flavonols are abundant in subgenus Lophozonia while these flavonols are largely absent from species of subgenus Fuscospora. The flavonoid patterns are largely in agreement with a recent subgeneric classification of Nothofagus.     

Seagrasses of south–west Australia: A conceptual synthesis of the world's most diverse and extensive seagrass meadows

South–west Australia contains extensive seagrass meadows along 2,500 km of coastline from the shallow subtidal to 50+ m water depths, and in many of the 51 bar-built estuaries along the coast. There are geomorphological differences between the south and west coasts that result in different patterns of swell exposure influencing the processes that structure seagrass habitats. In this paper, ‘sheltered’, ‘exposed’ and ‘estuarine’ seagrass habitat types are defined for south–west Australia to synthesize processes influencing seagrass communities. Sheltered habitats in south–west Australia are characterized by high light, low to moderate water motion and sporadic disturbance from storms, making them ideal habitats for a diversity of seagrass assemblages. Exposed seagrass habitats are characterized by the presence of strong and consistent ocean swells (3–8 m), predominantly from the south or south–west and seagrasses exhibit a suite of adaptive traits to survive the effects of exposure to ocean swell and associated sand movement. These include morphological features such as heavy fiber reinforcement to strengthen the aboveground stems or leaves, deep vertical rhizomes and life history traits such as rapid growth and high seed set. Within estuarine habitats highly dynamic seagrass communities are the result of fluctuating annual cycles in temperature, light and salinity. Compared to global seagrass meadows, coastal south–west Australian seagrass habitats experience high light, low nutrients and high water movement. Despite these differences, similarities with other regions do exist and here we place the habitats of south–west Australia into a global context using comparative data. The wide array of morphology and life history traits displayed among seagrass species of south–west Australia are presented in a conceptual model including habitat type, physical stressors and seagrass responses. The combination of adaptations to the habitats and processes that define them make south–west Australia a region where there is an unusually high number of co-occurring seagrass species, the highest in the world for a temperate environment (19 species), and approaching the species diversity of many tropical environments. Linking aspects of seagrass habitat, physical aspects of the environment and seagrass life history provides a context for applying knowledge gained from seagrasses in south–west Australia to other coastal ecosystems throughout the world.     

Flavonoids from tribe Delphineae (Ranunculaceae): Phytochemical review and chemotaxonomic value

This review summarizes the flavonoids isolated from three genera, namely, Aconitum, Delphinium, and Consolida, belonging to tribe Delphineae in the Ranunculaceae family for the first time. A total of 104 distinct flavonoid components, including 85 flavonols, 13 anthocyanins, four flavones, and two neoflavones, have been isolated from 44 members of tribe Delphineae. Flavonols account for the largest proportion and can be regarded as the dominant group of flavonoids in this tribe. Of the 104 isolated flavonoids, 55 are novel, indicating the high chemical diversity among the flavonoid constituents of Delphineae plants. Flavonoids in Delphineae plants exhibit chemotaxonomic significance, characterizing certain Delphineae species well. Flavonol glycosides, as the major flavonoid constituents in the investigated Delphineae species, could also serve as valuable chemotaxonomic markers in addition to diterpenoid alkaloids for the identification of Delphineae species.     

Plant Flavonoid <Emphasis Type="Italic">O</Emphasis>-Methyltransferases: Substrate Specificity and Application

Flavonoids consist of a large family of compounds, which has been estimated to be more than 10,000 compounds. The structural diversity of these compounds comes from different modification reactions. The O-methylation reaction is one of the most important modification reactions of flavonoids and the resulting O-methylated flavonoids have been shown to display new biological activities. The regioselective and substrate specific O-methylation is mediated by O-methyltranferases (OMTs). To date, 30 flavonoid OMTs (FOMTs) have been biochemically characterized from various plants. FOMTs utilize common reaction mechanisms to transfer a methyl group to the hydroxyl group of the flavonoid. Phylogenetic tree analysis along with biochemical characterization of FOMTs provides clues about their substrate specificity and regioselectivity. FOMTs can be used for the production of O-methylated flavonoids that have a particular biological activity.     

莲子心碳苷黄酮与黄酮异构体的色谱质谱研究

采用电喷雾质谱法(ESI-MS),对从莲子心分离得到的碳苷类黄酮化合物进行质谱碎裂规律研究。结果表明,负离子模式下,六碳糖碳苷黄酮主要发生糖环裂解,通过丢失特征性的碎片(90 u、120 u、150 u)与氧苷黄酮区分;单糖取代的六碳醛糖氧苷黄酮直接丢失单糖部分(162 u),六碳醛糖种类无法通过质谱区分,但由于它们在液相上的保留时间不同,可通过液相色谱-质谱(LC-MS)联用方法分离鉴定;二糖取代的氧苷黄酮主要碎片离子通过丢失糖部分(146 u、162 u、308 u)所得,二糖的种类及连接方式可通过质谱图上的碎片离子峰及其相对丰度辨别。莲子心中多种碳苷黄酮和氧苷黄酮质谱的不同裂解规律,不仅有助于莲子心黄酮化合物的快速鉴定,而且可以通过与液相色谱联用实现莲子心中同分异构体的快速区分。     

长白山北坡不同海拔及干扰程度下访花食蚜蝇群落的差异

本研究采用垂直面取样法,对中国长白山北坡不同海拔及干扰程度下访花食蚜蝇群落的物种组成、多度、丰富度及多样性进行了调查研究。我们选择了不同垂直带的两个样地,分别位于800~1 100 m和1 750 ~2 150 m;每个样地选取3种生境类型,每一生境类型采样面积为20 m×20 m。252组调查数据表明,共采到访花食蚜蝇42种2 540个体。不同海拔生境访花食蚜蝇的组成、多度、丰富度及多样性的差异分析结果表明: 低海拔样地内不同生境访花食蚜蝇的群落相似性高于高海拔样地;低海拔样地访花食蚜蝇的多度高于高海拔样地,而物种丰富度低于高海拔样地;不同生境类型访花食蚜蝇多样性指数存在差异,但高海拔样地与低海拔样地多样性差异不显著;过渡林生境（岳桦林带）与次生林生境（针阔混交林带Ⅱ）中访花食蚜蝇的多样性较高。保护珍稀植物物种的人工植物花园访花食蚜蝇多样性仅次于过渡林生境（岳桦林带）与次生林生境（针阔混交林带Ⅱ）,保护作用显著。     

Effects of anoxia on the distribution, respiratory strategies and electric signal diversity of gymnotiform fishes

This paper explores the relationship between dissolved oxygen concentration and the distribution and electric signal diversity of 64 species of gymnotiforms from the Tefé region of the upper Amazon basin. Seventeen species are able to tolerate protracted periods of anoxia in inundated várzea floodplains or in terra firme swamps. The majority do so by breathing air—either with specialist accessory air-breathing organs or via their gills. An assemblage of 38 species of gymnotiforms which are unable to tolerate hypoxia undertake lateral migrations from well-oxygenated river channels into and out of the várzea floodplain in response to oxygen availability. These have evolved behavioural adaptations to avoid hypoxic water. While there is a mix of tone- and pulse-type electric organ discharges (EODs) in species that live only in permanently well-oxygenated habitats, 16 out of the 17 species that live in anoxic habitats have pulse-type EODs. The tone-type signals may have less flexible and perhaps greater overall energetic demands that impose handicaps in habitats where oxygen is a limiting factor. Many tone-type species also have more active swimming behaviour which could impose further energetic demands.     

Geographical differentiation inferred from flavonoid content between coastal and freshwater populations of the coastal plant Lathyrus japonicus (Fabaceae)

Lake Biwa, one of the few ancient lakes in the world, harbors many coastal species that commonly inhabit seashores. The beach pea (Lathyrus japonicus) is a typical coastal species of this freshwater lake, and morphological and genetic differentiation between inland and coastal populations of this species have been reported. Inland and coastal habitats inflict distinct environmental stresses to plants, the latter imposing salt stress and high-light intensity, which leads to physiological differentiation. These abiotic stresses affect phenolic compounds, which play an important role in the response of plants to the toxic by-products of stress metabolism. We investigated physiological differentiation of phenolic compounds of the beach pea between inland and coastal habitats using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis. Flavonoid composition analyses revealed that patterns of flavonoid composition of inland populations at Lake Biwa were differentiated from those of coastal populations. All Lake Biwa individuals were fixed in the same flavonols glycosylated at 3- and 7-positions. In contrast, most coastal individuals contained flavonols glycosylated at 3-position alone, and these populations exhibited higher variation in flavonoid composition compared to among/within inland populations. Variation was likely lower in inland populations because of a bottleneck during landlocked periods, which is consistent with previous phylogeographic studies. A qualitative HPLC survey of flavonoid content revealed substantial variation among individuals regardless of locality. These results suggest that changes in the habitat environment may have led to beach pea acclimation via alteration of the quantity and quality of flavonoids.     

External flavonoid aglycones of Viguiera series Viguiera (asteraceae: heliantheae)

Distribution of external flavonoid aglycones supports other data to suggest that Viguiera series Viguiera (series Dentatae Blake) is a mixed taxonomic grouping. Two species, V. dentata and V. potosina, lack external flavonoid aglycones, whereas the remaining species of the series all produce external flavonoid aglycones and appear to form a natural taxonomic group. The latter group, which consists of species from Baja California and nearby xeric areas, exhibits a diversity of flavonoid types, with different diploid species variously producing flavonols, simple flavones, 6-methoxyflavones, 6-hydroxy,7-methoxyflavones and a chalkone as major compounds. Polyploid species exhibit combinations of flavonoid types from possible diploid ancestors. Compounds of the 6-hydroxy,7-methoxyflavone type appear to characterize the group of species from Baja California and nearby areas within Viguiera.     

Flavonoids of the annual Muhlenbergia

Whole plant flavonoids were characterized from 152 populations representing 15 species of the annual Muhlenbergia. Flavonoids are predominantly based on luteolin and tricin. Glycosides are linked at position 6 C-glycosyl and 7 O-glycosyl. There is considerable variation in flavonoid patterns within and among species. Phenetic analyses of flavonoid data support recognition of three closely related groups in these 15 species of Muhlenbergia.     

Habitat specificity and diversity of tree species in an African wet tropical forest

Niche differentiation with respect to habitat has been hypothesized to shape patterns of diversity and species distributions in plant communities. African forests have been reported to be relatively less diverse compared to highly diversed regions of the Amazonian or Southeast Asian forests, and might be expected to have less niche differentiation. We examined patterns of structural and floristic differences among five topographically defined habitats for 494 species with stems ≥1 cm dbh in a 50-ha plot in Korup National Park, Cameroon. In addition, we tested for species–habitat associations for 272 species (with more than 50 individuals in the plot) using Torus translation randomization tests. Tree density and basal area were lowest in areas with negative convexity, which contained streams or were inundated during rainy periods and highest in moist well-drained habitats. Species composition and diversity varied along the topographical gradient from low flat to ridge top habitats. The low depression and low flat habitats were characterized by high diversity and similar species composition, relative to slopes, high gullies and ridge tops. Sixty-three percent of the species evaluated showed significant positive associations with at least one of the five habitat types. The majority of associations were with low depressions (75 species) and the fewest with ridge tops (8 species). The large number of species–habitat associations and the pronounced contrast between low (valley) and elevated (ridgetop) habitats in the Korup plot shows that niche differentiation with respect to edaphic variables (e.g., soil moisture, nutrients) contributes to local scale tree species distributions and to the maintenance of diversity in African forests.     

Flavonoid aglycones from the leaf surfaces of someLabiatae species

The distribution of excreted flavonoid aglycones within the familyLabiatae was studied and differences were found, especially in the A-ring substitution patterns. Thus, 5,7-dihydroxy-6-methoxyflavones with substituted B-rings are characteristic of species ofSalvia (sect.Salvia),Rosmarinus andOcimum; 5,7-dihydroxy-6,8-dimethoxyflavones occur only inOcimum and 5,6-dihydroxy-7,8-dimethoxyflavones inThymus and related species. Members of the two subfamiliesLamioideae andNepetoideae produce exudate flavonoids, but some genera are devoid of these compounds. There is a correlation between the habitat where the plant grows and production of these compounds, the species from (semi-)arid habitats being those which generally accumulate external flavonoids.     

Do spider diversity and assemblages change in different contiguous habitats? A case study in the protected habitats of the humid chaco ecoregion, northeast Argentina

Spiders are a megadiverse group that can be useful indicators of the overall species richness and health of biotic communities. The spider diversity in subtropical forests of the Neotropical region are not yet well known, especially in Argentinean subtropical forests where systematic fieldwork has not been done until recently. The Great Chaco is very important as the unique dry subtropical forest of the earth, but it is suffering increasing degradation by the advance of agriculture. Spider communities have been shown to be more directly influenced by vegetation architecture than vegetation species composition. In this study, we aim to assess whether spider diversity and assemblages change in adjacent habitats with different types of vegetation. We compare the diversity and spider assemblages in two different contiguous protected habitats (hygrophilous woodland and savannah parkland) of the Mburucuyá National Park, (Humid Chaco ecoregion). Seasonal samples were obtained using three types of sampling methods: pitfall trapping, beating, and manual litter extraction. The spider assemblages were different in the studied areas, and the abundance, diversity, evenness, and species richness were higher in the hygrophilous woodland than the savannah parkland. These differences in spider diversity and assemblages indicate that both types of habitats are important if the biodiversity is to be conserved in the Chaco ecoregion, where different types of habitat are shown as a patchy distribution.     

Habitat size and number in multi-habitat landscapes: a model approach based on species-area curves

This paper discusses species diversity in simple multi-habitat environments. Its main purpose is to present simple mathematical and graphical models on how landscape patterns affect species numbers. The idea is to build models of species diversity in multi-habitat landscapes by combining species-area curves for different habitats. Predictions are made about how variables such as species richness and species overlap between habitats influence the proportion of the total landscape each habitat should constitute, and how many habitats it should be divided into in order to be able to sustain the maximal number of species. Habitat size and numbers are the only factors discussed here, not habitat spatial patterns. Among the predictions are: 1) where there are differences in species diversity between habitats, optimal landscape patterns contain larger proportions of species rich habitats. 2) Species overlap between habitats shifts the optimum further towards larger proportions of species rich habitat types. 3) Species overlap also shifts the optimum towards fewer habitat types. 4) Species diversity in landscapes with large species overlap is more resistant to changes in landscape (or reserve) size. This type of model approach can produce theories useful to nature and landscape management in general, and the design of nature reserves and national parks in particular.     

Flavonoids of Helianthus series Angustifolii

Leaf and ray flower flavonoids were investigated for the seven species of Helianthus series Angustifolii. Flavone aglycones occur in small glandular trichomes located on leaf undersurfaces of H. angustifolius, H. floridanus and H. simulans. Other species lacked both glandular trichomes and flavone aglycones. Flavonol glycosides occur in low concentrations in leaves of all species but were not characterized. Anthochlors (chalkones) occur in leaves of H. heterophyllus and H. longifolius. Ray flower flavonoids include anthochlor and flavonol glycosides and occur in the basal region of the ligule producing a band of UV A around the head. Anthochlors are the predominant ray flower flavonoids in H. angustifolius, H. heterophyllus and H. longifolius, whereas they are absent and quercetin 7-glucoside is present in H. carnosus and H. floridanus. Cladistic analysis of flavonoid and morphological characters indicates that evolution in the series has been a radiation from ancestral types rather than a linear sequence of progressively more derived species.     

北热带喀斯特森林木本植物花性状及其生境分异

植物花性状的多样化是植物长期进化及自然选择的结果, 不同植物种间花性状的变异与生境存在一定的相关性。北热带喀斯特季节性雨林具有生境异质性强、群落结构复杂、特有成分丰富等特点, 分析该森林植物性状的变化特征及其与生境的关联性, 有助于理解物种共存、协同进化过程和对生境的适应, 可为阐明喀斯特植物的生态适应性、理解生物多样性维持机理提供依据。本研究在弄岗15 ha森林动态监测样地木本植物开花相对集中的时间段进行, 记录并分析了21个物种花性状的变化。根据物种空间分布及其与生境的关联特性, 将21个物种分成偏好谷底、山坡、山顶的3种类型, 分析了这3种类型植物的花性状差异; 另外又根据花性状对21个物种进行聚类分析, 探讨了聚类分组结果和根据偏好生境分组结果的异同。结果表明: 花大小、花色鲜艳度均与物种优势度存在显著的负相关关系, 花小而不鲜艳的物种在群落中更有优势, 表现出更好的适应性; 不同偏好生境的植物花色明度有显著差异, 其他的花性状差异不显著; 聚类分组与根据偏好生境的分组有较好的一致性, 反映出物种的花性状变化响应了生境的变化。综上结果, 我们认为北热带喀斯特季节性雨林植物花性状与物种的优势度及生境条件有密切联系, 在该区域中生境对花性状的影响可能比传粉者更为深刻。