巨噬源性泡沫细胞形成过程中的机理研究及其进展

巨噬源性泡沫细胞的形成是动脉粥样病变的关键环节,清道夫受体与胆固醇代谢相关受体在此过程中发挥极其重要的作用。下面就泡沫细胞形成过程中的关键因素及机理做如下综述,并探讨通过调节这些潜在因素和机理,开发靶向药物治疗方法,有效抑制动脉粥样硬化的发生发展。     

TNF-alpha stimulates the ACAT1 expression in differentiating monocytes to promote the CE-laden cell formation

High levels of the inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) are present in atherosclerotic lesions. TNF-α regulates expression of multiple genes involved in various stages of atherosclerosis, and it exhibits proatherosclerotic and antiatherosclerotic properties. ACAT catalyzes the formation of cholesteryl esters (CE) in monocytes/macrophages, and it promotes the foam cell formation at the early stage of atherosclerosis. We hypothesize that TNF-α may be involved in regulating the ACAT gene expression in monocytes/macrophages. In this article, we show that in cultured, differentiating human monocytes, TNF-α enhances the expression of the ACAT1 but not ACAT2 gene, increases the cholesteryl ester accumulation, and promotes the lipid-laden cell formation. Several other proinflammatory cytokines tested do not affect the ACAT1 gene expression. The stimulation effect is consistent with a receptor-dependent process, and is blocked by using nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kappa B) inhibitors. A functional and unique NF-kappa B element located within the human ACAT1 gene proximal promoter is required to mediate the action of TNF-α. Our data demonstrate that TNF-α, through the NF-kappa B pathway, specifically enhances the expression of human ACAT1 gene to promote the CE-laden cell formation from the differentiating monocytes, and our data support the hypothesis that TNF-α is proatherosclerotic during early phase of lesion development.     

普伐他汀对泡沫细胞内胆固醇酯的影响及与小凹蛋白-1的关系

本文旨在观察普伐他汀对鼠源巨噬细胞性泡沫细胞内胆固醇酯含量的影响,探讨此作用与小凹蛋白一l的关系。采用体外培养的鼠源性巨噬细胞株作为研究对象,加入氧化低密度脂蛋白（oxidized low density lipoprotein,OX-LDL）使其形成泡沫细胞,运用高效液相色谱测定细胞内胆固醇酯的改变,同时运用Western blot检测细胞中小凹蛋白-1的表达,并观察普伐他汀对细胞内胆固醇酯和小凹蛋白-1影响的量效和时效关系。结果显示：普伐他汀可明显降低泡沫细胞内的胆固醇酯与总胆固醇的比值,且在一定范围内呈剂量依赖性和时间依赖性。在泡沫细胞中加入普伐他汀后能够促进小凹蛋白-1的表达,呈剂量依赖性和时间依赖性。上述结果提示普伐他汀通过降低细胞内胆固醇酯的含量,减轻细胞泡沫化程度。普伐他汀的这一作用可能与促进小凹蛋白-1表达上调有关。     

TLR4-mediated inflammation promotes foam cell formation of vascular smooth muscle cell by upregulating ACAT1 expression

Vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) foam cell formation is an important hallmark, especially in advanced atherosclerosis lesions. Acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase 1 (ACAT1) promotes foam cell formation by promoting intracellular cholesteryl ester synthesis. The present study tests the hypothesis that oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL) increases the ACAT1 expression by activating the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-mediated inflammation, and ultimately promotes VSMC foam cell formation. Wild-type, ApoE^−/−, TLR4^−/− and ACAT1^−/− mice on a C57BL/6J background were used. Increased TLR4, proinflammatory cytokines and ACAT1 were observed in high-fat (HF) diet-induced atherosclerotic plaque formation and in oxLDL-stimulated VSMCs. ACAT1 deficiency impeded the HF diet-induced atherosclerotic plaque formation and impaired the TLR4-manipulated VSMC foam cell formation in response to oxLDL. TLR4 deficiency inhibited the upregulation of myeloid-differentiating factor 88 (MyD88), nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), proinflammatory cytokines and ACAT1, and eventually attenuated the HF diet-induced atherosclerotic plaque formation and suppressed the oxLDL-induced VSMC foam cell formation. Knockdown of MyD88 and NF-κB, respectively, impaired the TLR4-manipulated VSMC foam cell formation in response to oxLDL. Rosiglitazone (RSG) attenuated HF diet-induced atherosclerotic plaque formation in ApoE^−/− mice, accompanied by reduced expression of TLR4, proinflammatory cytokines and ACAT1 accordingly. Activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) suppressed oxLDL-induced VSMC foam cell formation and inhibited the expression of TLR4, MyD88, NF-κB, proinflammatory cytokines and ACAT1, whereas inhibition of PPARγ exerted the opposite effect. TLR4^−/− mice and VSMCs showed impaired atherosclerotic plaque formation and foam cell formation, and displayed no response to PPARγ manipulation. In conclusion, our data showed that oxLDL stimulation can activate the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB inflammatory signaling pathway in VSMCs, which in turn upregulates the ACAT1 expression and finally promotes VSMC foam cell formation.Atherosclerosis remains the major cause of deaths worldwide, with deteriorated clinical consequence of cardiovascular diseases including myocardial infarction and stroke.¹ In 2008, for example, 17.3 million deaths were caused by cardiovascular diseases, and this number will increase to 23.3 million by 2030.² Therefore, a better understanding of mechanisms involved in atherosclerosis may advance the development of comprehensive therapeutic regimens.Foam cell formation from macrophages or vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) is a crucial event in the development of atherosclerosis. Acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase 1 (ACAT1) is an intracellular enzyme that converts free cholesterol into cholesteryl esters for storage in lipid droplets, and promotes foam cell formation in atherosclerotic lesions.^{3, 4, 5} ACAT1 activity is present in a variety of cells and tissues, including the macrophages, neurons, cardiomyocytes, VSMCs, mesothelial cells, alveolar and intestinal epithelial cells and hepatocytes.⁶ In macrophages, the involvement of ACAT1 in foam cell formation has been demonstrated by studies, and multiple molecular mechanisms have been put forward. A well-accepted mechanism is that inflammation increases the expression of ACAT1, promotes the intracellular lipid accumulation and ultimately leads to foam cell formation.⁷ However, in contrast, the mechanisms underlying VSMC foam cell formation, especially the role of ACAT1 in this process, remain largely unelucidated.It is widely accepted that atherosclerosis involves chronic inflammatory reaction.⁸ Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), one intensively investigated member of the TLR family, has a critical role in initiating inflammation, and participates in VSMC activation.^{9, 10} Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a TLR4-specific ligand that can trigger TLR4-mediated inflammation. A previous study showed that Chlamydia pneumoniae, which contains LPS in its outer membrane, promotes low-density lipoprotein-induced macrophage-derived foam cell formation via upregulation of the expression of ACAT1.¹¹ This further enhanced the association between inflammation and intracellular lipid disorder. However, considering that VSMCs in normal conditions do not have inflammatory properties similar to macrophages, it is unclear whether the TLR4-mediated inflammatory mechanism is also involved in the regulation of ACAT1 in VSMC foam cell formation. Herein, the present study tests the hypothesis that oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL) increases the ACAT1 expression by activating the TLR4-mediated inflammation, and ultimately promotes VSMC foam cell formation.     

Stimulation of transcriptional expression of human UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1A1 by dexamethasone

Human UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) 1A1 is only enzyme in the conjugation of bilirubin for prevention of hyperbilirubinemia and jaundice. Deletion or mutation of the UGT1A1 gene causes Crigler-Najjar syndrome or Gilbert's syndrome. We previously reported the functional promoter region for expression of UGT1A1 [Hepatology Research 9, 152-163 (1997)]. We investigated the influence of some drugs on the transient transfection assay of the luciferase reporter gene containing the 5'-promoter region -3174/+14 of UGT1A1 in HepG2 cells. Among drugs investigated, dexamethasone was the most effective at the range of concentration of 10-100 microM, whereas stimulation by beta-estradiol was not found. We also could not find stimulation by bilirubin of the endogenous main substrate for UGT1A1. Stimulation by dexamethasone was continued for 48 hr. The luciferase reporter gene containing the 5'-region of -97/+14 was induced by dexamethasone but the gene of the 5'-region -53/+14 was not. The region -97/-53 is essential for induction by dexamethasone. This region contains HNF1 element, therefore, we speculated that dexamethasone directly and/or indirectly stimulates UGT1A1 expression through this HNF1 region in the promoter region of UGT1A1. Thus, we clarified that UGT1A1 was induced by dexamethasone and the key position was the region (-97/-53) in UGT1A1 promoter.     

Lipid homeostasis and the formation of macrophage-derived foam cells in atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is a chronic, inflammatory disorder characterized by the deposition of excess lipids in the arterial intima. The formation of macrophage-derived foam cells in a plaque is a hallmark of the development of atherosclerosis. Lipid homeostasis, especially cholesterol homeostasis, plays a crucial role during the formation of foam cells. Recently, lipid droplet-associated proteins, including PAT and CIDE family proteins, have been shown to control the development of atherosclerosis by regulating the formation, growth, stabilization and functions of lipid droplets in macrophage-derived foam cells. This review focuses on the potential mechanisms of formation of macrophage-derived foam cells in atherosclerosis with particular emphasis on the role of lipid homeostasis and lipid droplet-associated proteins. Understanding the process of foam cell formation will aid in the future discovery of novel therapeutic interventions for atherosclerosis.     

Regulatory mechanisms for abnormal expression of the human breast cancer specific gene 1 in breast cancer cells

Breast cancer specific gene 1, also referred as synu-clein γ, was originally isolated from a human breasttumor cDNA library[1]. It reveals extensive sequencehomology to a family of neuronal cytosolic proteins,synuclein α and synuclein β[2,3]. Synuclein…     

Macropinocytosis contributes to the macrophage foam cell formation in RAW264.7 cells

The key event in the atherosclerosis development is the lipids uptake by macrophage and the formation of foam cell in subendothelial arterial space. Besides the uptake of modified low-density lipoprotein （LDL） by scavenger receptor-mediated endocytosis, macrophages possess constitutive macropinocytosis, which is capable of taking up a large quantity of solute. Macrophage foam cell formation could be induced in RAW264.7 cells by increasing the serum concentration in the culture medium. Foam cell formation induced by serum could be blocked by phosphoinositide 3-kinase inhibitor, LY294002 or wortmannin, which inhibited macropinocytosis but not receptor-mediated endocytosis. Further analysis indicated that macropinocytosis took place at the gangliosides-enriched membrane area. Cholesterol depletion by β-methylcyclodextrin-blocked macropinocytosis without affecting scavenger receptormediated endocytosis of modified LDLs. These results suggested that macropinocytosis might be one of the important mechanisms for lipid uptake in macrophage. And it made significant contribution to the lipid accumulation and foam cell formation.     

Effects of clinorotation on COL1A1- EGFP gene expression

Itisnowwellestablishedthatspaceflightin-ducesbonelossafterlong-termexposuretomicro-gravity.Biochemicalstudiesshowedthatcontinuousboneloss[1,2]andmineralredistribution[3]inducedbyspaceflightwereassociatedwiththedecreasedos-teoblasticactivityanddifferentialfunction[4—6].Recentfindingssuggestthechangeintheexpressionofbone-formationrelatedgeneplaysanimportantroleintheprocessofdecreasedosteoblasticfunctionsin-ducedbyspaceflight.CollagentypeIexpressedthroughouttheprocessofosteoblasticproliferationa…     

Tissue-specific knockouts of ACAT2 reveal that intestinal depletion is sufficient to prevent diet-induced cholesterol accumulation in the liver and blood

Acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase 2 (ACAT2) generates cholesterol esters (CE) for packaging into newly synthesized lipoproteins and thus is a major determinant of blood cholesterol levels. ACAT2 is expressed exclusively in the small intestine and liver, but the relative contributions of ACAT2 expression in these tissues to systemic cholesterol metabolism is unknown. We investigated whether CE derived from the intestine or liver would differentially affect hepatic and plasma cholesterol homeostasis. We generated liver-specific (ACAT2(L-/L-)) and intestine-specific (ACAT2(SI-/SI-)) ACAT2 knockout mice and studied dietary cholesterol-induced hepatic lipid accumulation and hypercholesterolemia. ACAT2(SI-/SI-) mice, in contrast to ACAT2(L-/L-) mice, had blunted cholesterol absorption. However, specific deletion of ACAT2 in the intestine generated essentially a phenocopy of the conditional knockout of ACAT2 in the liver, with reduced levels of plasma very low-density lipoprotein and hepatic CE, yet hepatic-free cholesterol does not build up after high cholesterol intake. ACAT2(L-/L-) and ACAT2(SI-/SI-) mice were equally protected from diet-induced hepatic CE accumulation and hypercholesterolemia. These results suggest that inhibition of intestinal or hepatic ACAT2 improves atherogenic hyperlipidemia and limits hepatic CE accumulation in mice and that depletion of intestinal ACAT2 is sufficient for most of the beneficial effects on cholesterol metabolism. Inhibitors of ACAT2 targeting either tissue likely would be beneficial for atheroprotection.     

Regulation of the human prostacyclin receptor gene by the cholesterol-responsive SREBP1

Prostacyclin and its prostacyclin receptor, the I Prostanoid (IP), play essential roles in regulating hemostasis and vascular tone and have been implicated in a range cardio-protective effects but through largely unknown mechanisms. In this study, the influence of cholesterol on human IP [(h)IP] gene expression was investigated in cultured vascular endothelial and platelet-progenitor megakaryocytic cells. Cholesterol depletion increased human prostacyclin receptor (hIP) mRNA, hIP promoter-directed reporter gene expression, and hIP-induced cAMP generation in all cell types. Furthermore, the constitutively active sterol-response element binding protein (SREBP)1a, but not SREBP2, increased hIP mRNA and promoter-directed gene expression, and deletional and mutational analysis uncovered an evolutionary conserved sterol-response element (SRE), adjacent to a known functional Sp1 element, within the core hIP promoter. Moreover, chromatin immunoprecipitation assays confirmed direct cholesterol-regulated binding of SREBP1a to this hIP promoter region in vivo, and immunofluorescence microscopy corroborated that cholesterol depletion significantly increases hIP expression levels. In conclusion, the hIP gene is directly regulated by cholesterol depletion, which occurs through binding of SREBP1a to a functional SRE within its core promoter. Mechanistically, these data establish that cholesterol can regulate hIP expression, which may, at least in part, account for the combined cardio-protective actions of low serum cholesterol through its regulation of IP expression within the human vasculature.     

Altered morphology of vegetative amoebae induced by increased expression of the Dictyostelium discoideum ras-related gene rap1

The rap1 gene of Dictyostelium discoideum is a member of the ras-gene superfamily of low molecular weight GTPase proteins. The rapl gene is expressed both during growth and development in D. discoideum. To examine the action of the Rapl protein in D. discoideum, the rap1 cDNA was expressed under the control of the inducible discoidin promoter. Treatment with conditioned media, which induces the discoidin promoter, increased Rap1 protein levels in vegetative cells approximately six fold. Overexpression of the Rapl protein correlated with the appearance of morphologically aberrant vegetative amoebae: cells were extensively spread and flattened. The distribution of F-actin was altered in these cells, with an increase in actin staining around the cell periphery. Induction of the discoidin promoter by starvation in the rapl transformants also resulted in spread flat cells. When starved D. discoideum amoebae are refed with HL5 media, the cells rapidly respond by rounding up. By contrast, the rapl transformant cells showed a pronounced delay in rounding up. Rapid tyrosine phosphorylation of a p45 protein occurred in both control cells and the rapl transformant upon refeeding, implying that the signal transduction pathway leading to tyrosine phosphorylation remained functional in the rapl transformant. We propose that the Rapl protein functions in the regulation of cell morphology in D. discoideum. © 1993Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Multisite promiscuity in the processing of endogenous substrates by human carboxylesterase 1

Human carboxylesterase 1 (hCE1) is a drug and endobiotic-processing serine hydrolase that exhibits relatively broad substrate specificity. It has been implicated in a variety of endogenous cholesterol metabolism pathways including the following apparently disparate reactions: cholesterol ester hydrolysis (CEH), fatty acyl Coenzyme A hydrolysis (FACoAH), acyl-Coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransfer (ACAT), and fatty acyl ethyl ester synthesis (FAEES). The structural basis for the ability of hCE1 to perform these catalytic actions involving large substrates and products has remained unclear. Here we present four crystal structures of the hCE1 glycoprotein in complexes with the following endogenous substrates or substrate analogues: Coenzyme A, the fatty acid palmitate, and the bile acids cholate and taurocholate. While the active site of hCE1 was known to be promiscuous and capable of interacting with a variety of chemically distinct ligands, these structures reveal that the enzyme contains two additional ligand-binding sites and that each site also exhibits relatively non-specific ligand-binding properties. Using this multisite promiscuity, hCE1 appears structurally capable of assembling several catalytic events depending, apparently, on the physiological state of the cellular environment. These results expand our understanding of enzyme promiscuity and indicate that, in the case of hCE1, multiple non-specific sites are employed to perform distinct catalytic actions.