Genomic groups,morphology, and sectional delimitation in EurasianElymus (Poaceae,Triticeae)

Seven tetraploid species ofElymus, viz.E. sibiricus, E. caninus, E. gmelinii, E. semicostatus, E. caucasicus, E. parviglume, andE. longearistatus subsp.canaliculatus, representing five sections were studied morphologically and used in interspecific hybridizations. The aim was to investigate whether the present sectional delimitation of the genus was in agreement with genomic data and if there was a correlation between genome constitution and morphology. The study revealed: (i) further information on the genomic affinities between the different species, (ii) that there is no congruence between genome constitution of the species and current sectional delimitation, and (iii) that there is a correlation between genome constitution and morphology in the palea apex shape and in the size of cilia of the palea.     

Asymmetrical development of biovulate cones resulting in uniovulate cones in Ephedra rhytidosperma (Ephedraceae)

Female cone morphology in Ephedra, including the number of initiated ovules and mature seeds per cone, provides important taxonomic characters used in sectional or species delimitation within Ephedra. Recent molecular phylogenies have indicated, however, that seed number per cone has changed repeatedly during the evolution of the genus. This study reports on the development of the female cone of E. rhytidosperma, based on a large sample of dissected cones studied under SEM. All cones were initially biovulate, and in the majority of cases, both female reproductive units (FRUs) developed a micropylar tube and formed mature seeds. In a few cases, the FRU pair developed asymmetrically in a cone, with one of them eventually aborting. There was no evidence of fusion of the FRU pair. Phylogenetically, E. rhytidosperma is in a clade with E. equisetina, which has uniovulate cones, and E. gerardiana and E. minuta, which have biovulate cones that also become unispermous via abortion. The biovulate condition may thus be ancestral in this clade.     

A palynotaxonomic study of Korean<Emphasis Type="Italic">Adonis</Emphasis> (Ranunculaceae)

The pollen morphology of KoreanAdonis was examined to clarify its specific recognition. Pollen grains were divided into two major types, according to the size and number of their echinae; those with many small echinae were further subdivided into two subtypes: 2 to 3 aligned foveolae vs. unaligned foveolae. The three types of pollen morphology determined here agree well with recent taxonomic treatments of KoreanAdonis. Those analyses, based on morphological and molecular properties, previously recognizedAdonis amurensis, Adonis multiflora, andAdonis pseudoa-murensis.     

Phylogenetic relationships ofPseudopanax species (Araliaceae) inferred from parsimony analysis of rDNA sequence data and morphology

Sequence data from internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions of rDNA and data from morphology, cytology and wood anatomy are used to study phylogenetic relationships inPseudopanax. The molecular and non-molecular data are analysed as independent data sets and in combination using parsimony. Results supported the conclusion that the genusPseudopanax is polyphyletic.Pseudopanax species emerge in two major monophyletic groups. The Anomalus group containsPseudopanax anomalus, P. edgerleyi, andP. simplex; these species share a common ancestor withCheirodendron trigynum and more distantly withPseudopanax gunnii. The second major group consists of two smaller groups: the Arboreus group, includingPseudopanax arboreus, P. colensoi, P. kermadecensis, P. laetus, andP. macintyrei, and the Crassifolius/Discolor group, includingP. chathamicus, P. crassifolius, P. discolor, P. ferox, P. gilliesii, P. lessonii, andP. linearis. Meryta species are close relatives of thePseudopanax Arboreus and Crassifolius/Discolor groups.     

Intraspecific interactions in a community of arboreal nesting termites (Isoptera: Termitidae)

In coconut plantations of northern New Guinea, the arboreal nesting termite community comprises three species:Nasutitermes princeps, N. novarumhebridarum, andMicrocerotermes biroi. In orde to assess the importance of intraspecific interactions in this community, we conducted pairwise encounters between batches of individuals in the laboratory and between entire nest populations in seminantural conditions. Three levels of agonism were defined in laboratory bioassays: anagonism, moderate agonism, and strong agonism. Anagonism was observed during all control tests with homocolonical groups and in some tests with allocolonial groups of all species. Moderate agonism included initial aggressiveness that subsequently faded out, and initially passive encounters where aggression progressively built up and led to fighting. Strong agonism corresponded to initial aggressiveness and fighting. Results obtained in alboratory bioassays were consistent with bioassays in seminatural conditions. WhenNasutitermes colonies were anagonists in laboratory bioassays, their foraging trails merged without aggression in field tests.N. princeps nests that were moderately agonistic in laboratory tests fought and either continued to avoid each other or finally joined after elimination of the most aggressive individuals. The most aggressiveM. biroi andN. princeps colonies fought and their foraging trails diverged afterward. Direct attacks on alien nests were winnessed inM. biroi. In all species, anagonism occurred in 21–34% of the combinations tested, between either geographically close or distantcolonies. An exeption was a group of 112 anagonist nests ofN. princeps, which most probably constituted a supercolony. The level of agonism betweenNasutitermes colonies was constant during the wet and dry season. Termite colonies excluded each other, both intra- and interspecifically, from the coconut trees, and their territories seem distributed in a mosaic pattern. Agonism between colonies may result in the elimination of the weakest colonies or in trail divergence, maintaining this mosaic. In cotrast, lack of agonism between some colonies suggests the possibility of colony fusion and gene exchanges without nuptial flights.     

TheAnabaena-Azolla symbiosis: Diversity and relatedness of neotropical host taxa

TheAnabaena-Azolla association has proved to be an effective biofertilizer in tropical regions of wetland rice production. Three neotropical host species,A. microphylla, A. caroliniana, andA. mexicana, are similar in vegetative morphology (growth habits, frond dimensions, trichome cell number) and ecophysiology (relative heat tolerance). They were observed during our investigation to also be genetically alike and distinct from other taxa.     

A biotechnology strategy for medium- and long-term conservation of cycads

It has been possible to regenerate a few cycad species in vitro by somatic embryogenesis, either from zygotic embryos (Ceratozamia hildae, C. mexicana, Encephalartos cycadifolius,E. dyerianus, E. natalensis, Zamia fischeri, Z. furfuracea, andZ. pumila) or from leaves of mature phase trees (C. euryphyllidia, Ceratozamia hildae, andC. mexicana). This strategy has great potential for the commercial vegetative propagation of certain highly endangered species (e.g.,C. euryphyllidia) and should indirectly protect wild populations of these species by discouraging collection in situ. Embryogenic cultures of several cycad species have grown vigorously and are highly morphogenic more than 11 years after induction. The long-term conservation of cycad genetic resources can also be addressed for species that can be regenerated by somatic embryogenesis. Preliminary studies indicate that embryogenic cultures that have been pretreated on plant growth medium containing 0.75 M sucrose for two days, encapsulated in sodium alginate, and desiccated for six hours can survive immersion in liquid nitrogen (−196°C).     

Taxonomic reappraisal on<Emphasis Type="Italic">Suaeda australis</Emphasis> (Chenopodiaceae) in korea based on the morphological and molecular characteristics

We used morphological and molecular characteristics to perform a taxonomic reappraisal ofSuaeda australis (Brown) Moquin-Tandon from Korea. Populations of this species are dispersed at the bottoms of sand zones, and usually exhibit a depressed habit. Except for their total heights and leaf lengths, the morphology of these plants does not differ from that ofS. maritima. Molecular traits were examined based on ITS and psbB-psbH spacer region sequences. The former region included ITS-1, 5.8S, and ITS-2, which were 629 nucleotide bases long. Pair-wise distances (p-distance) among KoreanSuaeda species ranged from 1.12 to 17.84. The psbB-psbH spacer region sequences were 618 nucleotide bases long, and were conserved in the alignment of KoreanSuaeda species. In our ML and MrBayesian analysis of ITS sequences aligned with other sequences from GenBank, the plants of KoreanSuaeda made three clades: 1)S. japonica;S. australis, andS. maritima;2)S. malacosperma; and 3) S.glauca. However, the psbB-psbH region sequences could not be resolved amongS. japonica, S. maritima, andS. australis from Korea. Molecular and vegetative characteristics indicated that the plants now classified asS. australis from Korea should instead be named as S.maritima (L.) Dumont.     

Characterisation of the enigmatic,endemic red algaGelidium allanii (Gelidiales) from northern New Zealand — morphology,distribution, agar chemistry

Gelidium allanii Chapman is endemic to northern New Zealand with a highly localised distribution. This species has remained little known, having been collected from only one locality for more than 40 years. We compare this species with other New Zealand members of the Gelidiaceae, in particularGelidium caulacantheum andPterocladia capillacea, presenting new data on morphology, distribution and agar chemistry to more fully characteriseG. allanii.G. allanii possesses a very distinctive, highly pyruvated agar. New Zealand records of two Australian speciesG. australe andG. asperum are examined and it is concluded that there is no evidence for their occurrence in New Zealand.Author for correspondence     

Diet divergence in two sympatric congeneric butterflies: Community or species level phenomenon?

Summary Two species ofEuphydryas butterflies were studied in California, USA, and showed considerable diet overlap at the species level. They utilize many of the same plant genera for oviposition. However,E. editha is less likely to use woody perennials than isE. chalcedona.Both butterfly species are known to specialize on different host plants in different populations, so species level divergence may not be a good predictor of community level divergence. Within five communities,E. editha andE. chalcedona showed no dietary overlap. A major component of the niche ofE. editha in one community was occupied byE. chalcedona in a second community, even though both butterfly species occupied both communities. These resource use patterns indicate that community level interactions may affect diet divergence. The degree to which divergence within communities is greater (or less) than expected from a species level comparison may be used to provide a measure of community organization. Equations are given in the Appendix for calculating overlap probabilities from presence/absence types of data; in this study, presence is oviposition on a particular plant species, absence is no oviposition on that plant species. Given the various assumptions of the model,E. editha andE. chalcedona show significant community level components of their dietary divergence in the areas studied. However, in some other communitiesE. editha andE. chalcedona do share host plant species. Therefore, we could not demonstrate community level divergence conclusively, nor has this been demonstrated for any other pair of insect herbivore species. We do not know whether this is because the phenomenon is truly rare or just very hard to demonstrate.     

Reappraisal ofDiplolabellum coreanum (orchidaceae) as inferred from molecular data

The taxonomic treatment of a monotypic genus,Diplolabellum, has been disputed by various authors. Maekawa (1935) described the genus on the basis ofOreorchis coreana IFinet. Because distribution of its plants is very limited, i.e., to Jeju Island of the South Korean Peninsula, it has not been well studied. To reappraise the phylogenetic relationship ofDiplolabellum coreanum Finet, we obtained ITS,matK, trnT-trnL, andtrnL-trnF sequences from several species ofOreorchis and related genera. Sequence analysis showed thatD. coreanum is closely related to one group ofOreorchis that consists ofO. patens Lindle andO. fargesii Finet. Therefore, our molecular data support treating the species asO. coreana rather than asD. coreanum, even though the latter genus is distinct fromOreorchis in morphological characters such as callus, pedicel, column, and caudicle.     

Morphological variation inLolium (Poaceae) as a measure of species relationships

Analysis of morphological and phenological data for determining the genetic variation within sevenLolium species led to the recognition of two groups within this genus. One group, containing the two inbreeding speciesL. temulentum andL. persicum, was clearly distinct from all other species. Strong morphological and phenological intergradation was found between both species. The cross-breeding species,L. perenne, L. rigidum, andL. multiflorum, formed another group. Little differentiation was found between these species, though they were distinct. Two inbreeding species,L. loliaceum andL. remotum, were clearly distinct from each other and the two groups.L. loliaceum had an isolated position and was most related toL. rigidum. L. remotum had an intermediate position between the cross-breeding and inbreeding species, and was almost equally distant from all three cross-breeding species.Genetic variation inLolium spp. I.     

Host Range ofBrachycaudus rumexicolens(Patch), an Aphid Associated with the Polygonaceae

The aphidBrachycaudus rumexicolensis a recent arrival in Australia where the weedsEmex australis, E. spinosa,andRumexspecies are its recorded hosts. Host range on 114 species representing 42 plant families was assessed in the laboratory to determine the aphid species' potential as a biological control agent againstE. australis.Survival and reproductive success were measured in clip and/or dialysis-tube cages.B. rumexicolensdeveloped most successfully onEmexspp. andRumexspp. and to a lesser extent on other Polygonaceae.Lupinus albus(white lupin) andTriticum aestivum(wheat) were the only non-Polygonaceae plants on whichB. rumexicolensdeveloped to a degree similar to its usual hosts. At a field site in Western Australia,E. australisandPolygonum avicularewere the only Polygonaceae present and the primary host species ofB. rumexicolens.At peak abundance, it was found on other pasture and crop species, but at considerably lower numbers than on its Polygonaceae hosts. It was concluded that this was due to local migration and that populations would not be sustained on non-Polygonaceae plants. It was also concluded that the risk of virus transmission would not be increased by the presence ofB. rumexicolenson nonhosts.B. rumexicolensis considered sufficiently safe to use in programs aimed at augmenting the impact of biological control agents on the weedE. australis.     

Genetic differentiation of theErigeron species (Asteraceae) in the Alps: A case of unusual allozymic uniformity

Allozyme variation was studied in all nine diploidErigeron species known from the Alps:E. alpinus, E. neglectus, E. polymorphus, E. candidus, E. uniflorus, E. atticus, E. gaudinii, E. acer, andE. angulosus. A total of 248 individuals from 24 natural populations was investigated using starch gel electrophoresis. Seven enzymes and 13 loci were assessed. Genetic variation within populations was low with the proportion of polymorphic loci ranging from 0.0–0.385, and average number of alleles per polymorphic locus from 2.0–2.5. In general, 70–100% of the genetic variation was attributed to between population differences. Mean genetic identities for pair-wise comparisons of populations averaged 0.893 within species, and 0.890 among species. Interspecific genetic variation of populations usually did not exceed intraspecific variation. It was concluded that theErigeron species from the Alps may have arisen by recent speciation probably during the epoches of glaciation. Morphological and ecological differences between species seem to be based on few gene loci.     

Seasonal variation in allelopathic potential of<Emphasis Type="Italic">Artemisia princeps</Emphasis> var.<Emphasis Type="Italic">orientalis</Emphasis> on plants and microbes

We investigated seasonal variations in allelopathic potential ofArtemisia princeps var.orientalis. Aqueous and meth-anol extracts and volatile substances were prepared in the laboratory from samples collected monthly (April through October). Their impacts were then assessed on the germination and seedling growth ofLactuca sativa andAchyranthes japonica. The allelopathic potential varied with the time of sample collection and the concentration tested. For example, germination ofL. sativa was not inhibited by the aqueous extract but seedling growth (shoots and roots) was, with its seasonal effect being significant. ForA. japonica, seed germination was not inhibited at lower concentrations (except for August samples). However, at higher concentrations and in certain months (especially July), germination was more negatively affected. The degree of seedling growth inhibition also differed by month and by extract concentration, with roots being impacted more than shoots. Volatile substances also had a time-dependent influence on the germination and seedling elongation ofA. japonica. In a separate experiment, the ethyl-acetate and water fractions of a crude methanol extract were prepared monthly fromA. princeps var.orientalis. Here, we examined their antimicrobial activities against three gram-positive bacteria (Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, andStaphylococcus aureus), two gramnegative bacteria (Escherichia coli andPseudomonas fluorescens), and one lactic acid bacterium,Lactobacillus plantar urn. The ethyl-acetate fraction that was sampled in September was remarkably potent againstB. cereus andB. subtilis, whereas the water fraction collected in August and September showed great antimicrobial activity against the grampositive and -negative bacteria. In contrast,L. plantarum was not inhibited by the water fraction, regardless of the sampling month. Likewise, the ethyl-acetate and water fractions collected in April and October had the lowest levels of antimicrobial activity.     

Evidence from RAPD markers in the evolution ofEchinochloa millets (Poaceae)

Echinochloa (Poaceae) includes two domesticated species,Echinochloa utilis (Japanese barnyard millet) andE. frumentacea (Indian sawa millet) and 20–30 wild species. The two millets are morphologically very variable and overlap in spikelet and inflorescence characteristics. Both species are hexaploids based on x = 9. Cytogenetic studies point to the hexaploid wild speciesE. crusgalli andE. colona as possible progenitors ofE. utilis andE. frumentacea, respectively. The tetraploidE. oryzoides is considered as a possible genome donor to wild and domesticated barnyard millet. Markers from Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA method were used to assess the proposed phylogeny and examine the genetic diversity in both domesticated and wild species. The data were analyzed numerically.Echinochloa utilis andE. frumentacea appear very distinct, but grouped withE. crusgalli andE. colona, respectively. The tetraploidE. oryzoides show strong genetic affinity to theE. utilis—E. crusgalli group. The data are in general agreement with the cytogenetic information; however, some disagreements on the interpretation of some of the cytogenetic information is raised. The variability in DNA markers observed in the domesticated species, particularlyE. frumentacea, points to the feasibility of using RAPD markers in cultivar fingerprinting and breeding programs of these millets.     

Phylogenetic relationships in the genera<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Zostera</Emphasis> and<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Heterozostera</Emphasis> (Zosteraceae) based on<Emphasis Type="Italic"> matK</Emphasis> sequence data

Phylogenetic analysis of the plastid (chloroplast) DNA matK gene of Zosteraceae species was undertaken. A molecular phylogenetic tree based on matK sequence data showed the monophyly of Heterozostera tasmanica and subgenus Zosterella and did not support the separation of Heterozostera from the genus Zostera. The tree based on matK supported the monophyly of the subgenus Zostera, and showed that Zosteraceae consist of three main groups: Phyllospadix, which is clearly defined by being dioecious; the subgenus Zosterella and Heterozostera; and the subgenus Zostera. Character-state reconstruction of chromosome number and geographic distribution for our molecular phylogenetic tree showed that 2n=12 is a plesiomorphic character for Zostera and Heterozostera, that the chromosome number was doubled or tripled in two lineages, and that the initial speciation of Zostera and Heterozostera occurred in the Northern Hemisphere. The matK tree showed the close affinity of Z. noltii and Z. japonica, which have disjunct distributions. Zostera marina, which is the only widely distributed species in the subgenus Zostera, also occurring in the northern Atlantic, was shown to be embedded within other subgenus Zostera species.     

The branching of the inflorescence and vegetative shoot and taxonomy of the genusKummerowia (Leguminosae)

A study of the branching of the inflorescence and the vegetative shoot of the genusKummerowia, consisting ofK. stipulacea (Maxim.) Makino andK. striata (Thunb.) Schindler, has led to the following conclusions: (1) the inflorescences of both species are reduced compound cymes, (2) the branching system of the inflorescence ofKummerowia is not clearly different from that of the vegetative shoot and there are some transitional forms between both systems, and (3) the inflorescence ofKummerowia is different from the racemose inflorescences ofLespedeza andCampylotropis. Based on the differences found in the branching system of the inflorescence,Kummerowia is distinctly separated fromLespedeza andCampylotropis and is more correctly treated as a distinct genus from the latter two.     

Monotropastrum kirishimense (Ericaceae), a new mycoheterotrophic plant from Japan based on multifaceted evidence

Due to their reduced morphology, non-photosynthetic plants have been one of the most challenging groups to delimit to species level. The mycoheterotrophic genus Monotropastrum, with the monotypic species M. humile, has been a particularly taxonomically challenging group, owing to its highly reduced vegetative and root morphology. Using integrative species delimitation, we have focused on Japanese Monotropastrum, with a special focus on an unknown taxon with rosy pink petals and sepals. We investigated its flowering phenology, morphology, molecular identity, and associated fungi. Detailed morphological investigation has indicated that it can be distinguished from M. humile by its rosy pink tepals and sepals that are generally more numerous, elliptic, and constantly appressed to the petals throughout its flowering period, and by its obscure root balls that are unified with the surrounding soil, with root tips that hardly protrude. Based on genome-wide single-nucleotide polymorphisms, molecular data has provided clear genetic differentiation between this unknown taxon and M. humile. Monotropastrum humile and this taxon are associated with different Russula lineages, even when they are sympatric. Based on this multifaceted evidence, we describe this unknown taxon as the new species M. kirishimense. Assortative mating resulting from phenological differences has likely contributed to the persistent sympatry between these two species, with distinct mycorrhizal specificity.

     

Efficiency of uronic acid uptake in marine alginate-degrading fungi

Despite the fact that many marine fungi, including phycomycetes, yeasts, ascomycetes and hyphomycetes, have been recorded from living and/or dead phaeophytes, only a few of these have been shown to be capable of degrading alginic acid or alginates. The degradation is achieved by the action of an exoenzyme complex, comprising alginate lyase, as well as alginate hydrolase activities. The latter was detected only recently by the authors. In this study, the growth of two marine sodiumalginate-degrading deuteromycetes,Asteromyces cruciatus andDendryphiella salina, was investigated, and the assimilation efficiency of sodiumalginate and its uronic acid degradation products, respectively, was estimated from the economic coefficient (E). E is calculated from the mycelial dry weight, divided by the weight of substrate consumed for this production. The economic coefficient forA. cruciatus was 48.6%, and that ofD. salina 38.9%. This indicates that the former species uses the alginate degradation products more efficiently than the latter. The observed E-values for the marine deuteromycetes agree with those from other fungi, e.g. terrestrial species. In general, it is concluded that the marine fungi appear to play a more important role in kelp-based ecosystems than was realized previously.