CDK inhibitors,p21 and p27, participate in cell cycle exit of mammalian cardiomyocytes

Mammalian cardiomyocytes actively proliferate during embryonic stages, following which cardiomyocytes exit their cell cycle after birth. The irreversible cell cycle exit inhibits cardiac regeneration by the proliferation of pre-existing cardiomyocytes. Exactly how the cell cycle exit occurs remains largely unknown. Previously, we showed that cyclin E- and cyclin A-CDK activities are inhibited before the CDKs levels decrease in postnatal stages. This result suggests that factors such as CDK inhibitors (CKIs) inhibit CDK activities, and contribute to the cell cycle exit. In the present study, we focused on a Cip/Kip family, which can inhibit cyclin E- and cyclin A-CDK activities. Expression of p21^Cip1 and p27^Kip1 but not p57^Kip2 showed a peak around postnatal day 5, when cyclin E- and cyclin A-CDK activities start to decrease. p21^Cip1 and p27^Kip1 bound to cyclin E, cyclin A and CDK2 at postnatal stages. Cell cycle distribution patterns of postnatal cardiomyocytes in p21^Cip1 and p27^Kip1 knockout mice showed failure in the cell cycle exit at G1-phase, and endoreplication. These results indicate that p21^Cip1 and p27^Kip play important roles in the cell cycle exit of postnatal cardiomyocytes.     

A cell-autonomous requirement for Cip/Kip cyclin-kinase inhibitors in regulating neuronal cell cycle exit but not differentiation in the developing spinal cord

Control over cell cycle exit is fundamental to the normal generation of the wide array of distinct cell types that comprise the mature vertebrate CNS. Here, we demonstrate a critical role for Cip/Kip class cyclin-kinase inhibitory (CKI) proteins in regulating this process during neurogenesis in the embryonic spinal cord. Using immunohistochemistry, we show that all three identified Cip/Kip CKI proteins are expressed in both distinct and overlapping populations of nascent and post-mitotic neurons during early neurogenesis, with p27(Kip1) having the broadest expression, and both p57(Kip2) and p21(Cip1) showing transient expression in restricted populations. Loss- and gain-of-function approaches were used to establish the unique and redundant functions of these proteins in spinal cord neurogenesis. Using genetic lineage tracing, we provide evidence that, in the absence of p57, nascent neurons re-enter the cell cycle inappropriately but later exit to begin differentiation. Analysis of p57(Kip2);p27(Kip1) double mutants, where p21 expression is confined to only a small population of interneurons, demonstrates that Cip/Kip CKI-independent factors initiate progenitor cell cycle exit for the majority of interneurons generated in the developing spinal cord. Our studies indicate that p57 plays a critical cell-autonomous role in timing cell cycle exit at G1/S by opposing the activity of Cyclin D1, which promotes cell cycle progression. These studies support a multi-step model for neuronal progenitor cell cycle withdrawal that involves p57(Kip2) in a central role opposing latent Cyclin D1 and other residual cell cycle promoting activities in progenitors targeted for differentiation.     

Intrinsic structural disorder and sequence features of the cell cycle inhibitor p57Kip2.

The cell cycle inhibitor p57Kip2 induces cell cycle arrest by inhibiting the activity of cyclin-dependent kinases. p57, although active as a cyclin A-CDK2 inhibitor, is largely unfolded or intrinsically disordered as shown by circular dichroism and fluorescence spectra characteristic of an unfolded protein and a hydrodynamic radius consistent with an unfolded structure. In addition, the N-terminal domain of p57 is both functionally independent as a cyclin A-CDK2 inhibitor and unstructured, as demonstrated by circular dichroism and fluorescence spectra indicative of unfolded proteins, a lack of 1H chemical shift dispersion and a hydrodynamic radius consistent with a highly unfolded structure. The amino acid compositions of full-length p57 and the excised QT domain of p57 exhibit significant deviations from the average composition of globular proteins that are consistent with the observed intrinsic disorder. However, the amino acid composition of the CDK inhibition domain of p57 does not exhibit such a striking deviation from the average values observed for proteins, implying that a general low level of hydrophobicity, rather than depletion or enrichment in specific amino acids, contributes to the intrinsic disorder of the excised p57 CDK inhibition domain.     

p57(Kip2) regulates progenitor cell proliferation and amacrine interneuron development in the mouse retina

A precise balance between proliferation and differentiation must be maintained during retinal development to obtain the correct proportion of each of the seven cell types found in the adult tissue. Cyclin kinase inhibitors can regulate cell cycle exit coincident with induction of differentiation programs during development. We have found that the p57(Kip2) cyclin kinase inhibitor is upregulated during G(1)/G(0) in a subset of retinal progenitor cells exiting the cell cycle between embryonic day 14.5 and 16.5 of mouse development. Retroviral mediated overexpression of p57(Kip2) in embryonic retinal progenitor cells led to premature cell cycle exit. Retinae from mice lacking p57(Kip2) exhibited inappropriate S-phase entry and apoptotic nuclei were found in the region where p57(Kip2) is normally expressed. Apoptosis precisely compensated for the inappropriate proliferation in the p57(Kip2)-deficient retinae to preserve the correct proportion of the major retinal cell types. Postnatally, p57(Kip2) was found to be expressed in a novel subpopulation of amacrine interneurons. At this stage, p57(Kip2 )did not regulate proliferation. However, perhaps reflecting its role during this late stage of development, animals lacking p57(Kip2) showed an alteration in amacrine subpopulations. p57(Kip2) is the first gene to be implicated as a regulator of amacrine subtype/subpopulation development. Consequently, we propose that p57(Kip2) has two roles during retinal development, acting first as a cyclin kinase inhibitor in mitotic progenitor cells, and then playing a distinct role in neuronal differentiation.     

p27Kip1 serine 10 phosphorylation determines its metabolism and interaction with cyclin-dependent kinases

p27Kip1 is a critical modulator of cell proliferation by controlling assembly, localization and activity of cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK). p27Kip1 also plays important roles in malignant transformation, modulating cell movement and interaction with the extracellular matrix. A critical p27Kip1 feature is the lack of a stable tertiary structure that enhances its “adaptability” to different interactors and explains the heterogeneity of its function. The absence of a well-defined folding underlines the importance of p27Kip1 post-translational modifications that might highly impact the protein functions. Here, we characterize the metabolism and CDK interaction of phosphoserine10-p27Kip1 (pS10- p27Kip1), the major phosphoisoform of p27Kip1. By an experimental strategy based on specific immunoprecipitation and bidimensional electrophoresis, we established that pS10-p27Kip1 is mainly bound to cyclin E/CDK2 rather than to cyclin A/CDK2. pS10- p27Kip1 is more stable than non-modified p27Kip1, since it is not (or scarcely) phosphorylated on T187, the post-translational modification required for p27Kip1 removal in the nucleus. pS10-p27Kip1 does not bind CDK1. The lack of this interaction might represent a mechanism for facilitating CDK1 activation and allowing mitosis completion. In conclusion, we suggest that nuclear p27Kip1 follows 2 almost independent pathways operating at different rates. One pathway involves threonine-187 and tyrosine phosphorylations and drives the protein toward its Skp2-dependent removal. The other involves serine-10 phosphorylation and results in the elongation of p27Kip1 half-life and specific CDK interactions. Thus, pS10-p27Kip1, due to its stability, might be thought as a major responsible for the p27Kip1-dependent arrest of cells in G1/G0 phase.     

p27Kip1 inhibits the cell cycle through non-canonical G1/S phase-specific gatekeeper mechanism

The cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitor p27Kip1 has been shown to regulate cellular proliferation via inhibition of CDK activities. It is now recognized that p27Kip1 can regulate cellular processes through non-canonical, CDK-independent mechanisms. We have developed an inducible p27Kip1 model in cultured cells to explore CDK-independent p27Kip1 regulation of biological processes. We present evidence that p27Kip1 can function in a CDK-independent manner to inhibit entry and/or progression of S phase. Even though this p27Kip1 mechanism is non-canonical it does requires the intact cyclin-binding motif in p27Kip1. We suggest a mechanism similar to that proposed in post-mitotic neural cells whereby p27Kip1 functions to coordinate growth arrest and apoptosis. Our hypothesis supports the concept that p27Kip1 is a gatekeeper for the entry and progression of S phase through interaction with specific protein(s) or via binding to specific DNA sequences in a CDK-independent manner.     

DNAse I pre-treatment markedly enhances detection of nuclear cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p57Kip2 and BrdU double immunostaining in embryonic rat brain

As a member of the CIP/KIP family of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors (CKIs), p57Kip2 binds tightly to G1 cyclin/cyclin-dependent kinase complexes to block cell cycle progression. CKIs play critical roles in regulating the transition from proliferation to differentiation in many tissues, including the nervous system. Conversely, CKI dys-regulation contributes to neoplasia and cancer progression. While the combined detection of CKI immunoreactivity and S phase entry using bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation may be particularly informative, successful immunostaining may be limited due to “masked” antigen epitopes and acid-induced signal degradation. We now report an improved double immunofluorescent method for detecting p57Kip2 and BrdU in paraformaldehyde-fixed frozen sections of embryonic rat brain. We substituted deoxyribonuclease I (DNAse I) for HCl pre-treatment to expose antigenic sites in frozen sections, and employed a biotinylated tyramide-based system to enhance p57Kip2 visualization. We identified a time- and dose-dependent relationship between DNAse I treatment and double labeling of p57Kip2 and BrdU, increasing both the numbers and intensities of immunopositive nuclei. With excess DNAse I treatment, however, there was signal degradation for both BrdU and total DNA, as reflected by DAPI staining. The use of DNAse I pre-treatment significantly increases the reliability and sensitivity of immunodetection of CKI nuclear factors, and should be useful for both developmental neurobiology studies as well as cancer diagnostic applications.     

LIM kinase-2 induces programmed necrotic neuronal death via dysfunction of DRP1-mediated mitochondrial fission

Although the aberrant activation of cell cycle proteins has a critical role in neuronal death, effectors or mediators of cyclin D1/cyclin-dependent kinase 4 (CDK4)-mediated death signal are still unknown. Here, we describe a previously unsuspected role of LIM kinase 2 (LIMK2) in programmed necrotic neuronal death. Downregulation of p27^Kip1 expression by Rho kinase (ROCK) activation induced cyclin D1/CDK4 expression levels in neurons vulnerable to status epilepticus (SE). Cyclin D1/CDK4 complex subsequently increased LIMK2 expression independent of caspase-3 and receptor interacting protein kinase 1 activity. In turn, upregulated LIMK2 impaired dynamic-related protein-1 (DRP1)-mediated mitochondrial fission without alterations in cofilin phosphorylation/expression and finally resulted in necrotic neuronal death. Inhibition of LIMK2 expression and rescue of DRP1 function attenuated this programmed necrotic neuronal death induced by SE. Therefore, we suggest that the ROCK-p27^Kip1-cyclin D1/CDK4-LIMK2-DRP1-mediated programmed necrosis may be new therapeutic targets for neuronal death.     

p27Kip1-mediated controlled proliferation technology increases constitutive sICAM production in CHO-DUKX adapted for growth in suspension and serum-free media

We have engineered dihydrofolate reductase-deficient (dhfr(-)) Chinese hamster ovary (CHO)-DUKX B11 cells adapted for growth in serum-free suspension cultures for unlinked muristerone-inducible expression of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p27Kip1 and constitutive expression of the soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (sICAM), a potent common cold therapeutic. Conditional overexpression of p27Kip1 resulted in a sustained G1-specific growth arrest of transgenic CHO-DUKX associated with up to fivefold-increased specific sICAM productivity. Herein we exemplify the implementation of controlled proliferation technology in a major biopharmaceutical production cell line that is compatible with key requirements for large-scale production procedures, including constitutive transgene expression and anchorage-independent growth in serum-free media.     

Secalonic acid D blocks embryonic palatal mesenchymal cell-cycle by altering the activity of CDK2 and the expression of p21 and cyclin E

BACKGROUND: The mycotoxin, secalonic acid D (SAD), a known animal and potential human cleft palate (CP)-inducing agent, is produced by Pencillium oxalicum in corn. SAD selectively inhibits proliferation of murine embryonic palatal mesenchymal (MEPM) cells leading to a reduction in cell numbers. These effects can explain the reduction in shelf size and the resulting CP seen in the offspring of SAD-exposed mice. Ability of SAD to inhibit proliferation as well as to block the progression of cells from G1- to S-phase of the cell-cycle were also shown in the human embryonic palatal mesenchymal (HEPM) cells suggesting the potential CP-inducing effect of SAD in human beings METHODS: Gestation day (GD) 12 mouse embryos and HEPM cells were used to test the hypothesis that the cell-cycle block induced by SAD results from a disruption of stage-specific regulatory components both in vivo and in vitro. The effects of SAD on the activity of various cyclin dependent kinases (CDK) and on the levels of various positive (cyclins and CDK) and negative (CDK inhibitors p15, 16, 18, 19, 21, 27, 57) cell-cycle regulators were assessed by performing kinase assays and immunoblots, respectively. RESULTS: In the murine embryonic palates, SAD specifically inhibited G1/S-phase-specific CDK2 activity, reduced the level of cyclin E and tended to increase the level of the CIP/kip CDK inhibitor, p21. In the HEPM cell cultures, exposure to IC50 of SAD significantly affected all of the above targets. In addition, a reduction in the levels/activity of CDK 4/6, a reduction in the levels of cyclins D1, D2, D3, E, A, and all INK4 family proteins, and an increase in the level of the CIP/kip CDK inhibitor, p57, were also seen. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that the S-phase-specific cell-cycle proteins CDK2, cyclin E and possibly p21 are the common targets of SAD in murine palatal shelves in vivo and in human embryonic palatal mesenchymal cells in vitro and may be relevant to the pathogenesis of SAD-induced CP.     

The Down syndrome-related protein kinase DYRK1A phosphorylates p27Kip1 and Cyclin D1 and induces cell cycle exit and neuronal differentiation

A fundamental question in neurobiology is how the balance between proliferation and differentiation of neuronal precursors is maintained to ensure that the proper number of brain neurons is generated. Substantial evidence implicates DYRK1A (dual specificity tyrosine-phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1A) as a candidate gene responsible for altered neuronal development and brain abnormalities in Down syndrome. Recent findings support the hypothesis that DYRK1A is involved in cell cycle control. Nonetheless, how DYRK1A contributes to neuronal cell cycle regulation and thereby affects neurogenesis remains poorly understood. In the present study we have investigated the mechanisms by which DYRK1A affects cell cycle regulation and neuronal differentiation in a human cell model, mouse neurons, and mouse brain. Dependent on its kinase activity and correlated with the dosage of overexpression, DYRK1A blocked proliferation of SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells within 24 h and arrested the cells in G₁ phase. Sustained overexpression of DYRK1A induced G₀ cell cycle exit and neuronal differentiation. Furthermore, we provide evidence that DYRK1A modulated protein stability of cell cycle-regulatory proteins. DYRK1A reduced cellular Cyclin D1 levels by phosphorylation on Thr286, which is known to induce proteasomal degradation. In addition, DYRK1A phosphorylated p27^Kip1 on Ser10, resulting in protein stabilization. Inhibition of DYRK1A kinase activity reduced p27^Kip1 Ser10 phosphorylation in cultured hippocampal neurons and in embryonic mouse brain. In aggregate, these results suggest a novel mechanism by which overexpression of DYRK1A may promote premature neuronal differentiation and contribute to altered brain development in Down syndrome.     

非小细胞肺癌FGFR1OP和p57／Kip2的表达及临床意义

探讨FGFR1OP和p57/Kip2在非小细胞肺癌中的表达情况。选取58倒非小细胞肺癌手术切除标本,采用SP法进行免疫组织化学染色。FGFR1OP和p57/Kip2在肺癌中的阳性表达率分别为91.4%和56.9%。FGFR1OP的表达强度与肿瘤的分化程度、病理类型密切相关,在低分化腺癌(P=0.003)和低分化鳞癌(P=0.001)中的表达强度要高于高分化的腺癌和鳞癌,在鳞癌中的表达强度高于腺癌(P=0.002);与之相反,p57/Kip2随着肿瘤分化程度降低(腺癌P=0.008,鳞癌P=0.000),表达强度也显著下降,在鳞癌中的表达强度要低于腺癌(P=0.000)。FGFR1OP的高表达与p57/Kip2的低表达可能参与肿瘤的生长分化和进展,并提示预后不良。     

胶质瘤组织中PTEN、p57／Kip2蛋白的表达及临床意义研究

探讨PTEN、p57／Kip2在脑胶质瘤中的表达情况和临床意义。选取54例胶质瘤手术切除标本,采用sP法进行免疫组织化学染色。PTEN、p57／Kip2阳性表达率分别为48．1％（26／54）和44．4％（24／54）,两者在高度恶性组（Ⅲ～Ⅳ级）的表达强度明显低于低度恶性组（Ⅰ—Ⅱ级）,且随着胶质瘤的恶性程度不同表现出明显的统计学差异（P〈0．05）。PTEN与p57／Kip2的低表达可能参与肿瘤的生长分化和进展,可能提示预后不良。     

DNA损伤反应中细胞周期检查点蛋白p27~(Kip1)表达及其调控机制

为了研究DNA损伤反应中p2 7Kip1的表达及其调控机制 ,应用免疫印迹的实验结果表明 :10Gy 60 Coγ射线照射后 3h ,HeLa细胞中p2 7Kip1蛋白水平开始下降并持续到 2 4h ,进而失去它对CDKs的抑制功能 .Northern印迹结果显示 ,电离辐射 (IR)对p2 7Kip1mRNA表达水平无明显影响 ,说明电离辐射诱导p2 7Kip1表达水平的降低主要与蛋白质降解相关 ,但其具体的调控机制还不清楚 .已知在G1—S期p2 7Kip1蛋白的降低主要依赖细胞周期蛋白E Cdk2激酶将其磷酸化后的泛素化蛋白酶体途径 (ubiquitin proteasomepathway) .酶动力学研究结果揭示 :电离辐射后细胞周期蛋白E Cdk2激酶活性增高 ,12h细胞周期蛋白E Cdk2激酶活性达到最大 .当在照前用细胞周期蛋白E Cdk2抑制剂olomoucine (10 μmol L)抑制细胞周期蛋白E Cdk2激酶活性时 ,p2 7Kip1蛋白表达水平增加 .此外 ,还观察到电离辐射可诱导p2 7Kip1泛素化水平的增高 ,而在使用蛋白酶体抑制剂MG 132 (5 μmol L)处理HeLa细胞后 ,可抑制辐射诱导p2 7Kip1蛋白水平的下调 .研究结果提示 :泛素化蛋白酶体途径参与了辐射诱导P2 7Kip1蛋白表达下调的降解机制 .     

周期蛋白和周期蛋白依赖性激酶及相关激酶抑制剂在细胞周期进程中的调控机制研究进展

在细胞发育过程中,细胞周期起着至关重要的作用。细胞周期进程主要受细胞周期蛋白依赖性激酶(cyclin dependent kinase, CDK)、周期蛋白和内源性CDK抑制剂(cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors,CKI)调控。其中,CDK是主要的细胞周期调节因子,可与周期蛋白结合形成周期蛋白-CDK复合物,从而使数百种底物磷酸化,调控分裂间期和有丝分裂进程。各类细胞周期蛋白的活性异常,可引起不受控制的癌细胞增殖,导致癌症的发生与发展。因此,了解CDK的活性变化情况、周期蛋白-CDK的组装以及CKI的作用,将有助于了解细胞周期进程中潜在的调控过程,为癌症与疾病的治疗和CKI治疗药物的研发提供基础。本文关注了CDK激活和灭活的关键事件,并总结了周期蛋白-CDK在特定时期及位置的调控过程,以及相关CKI治疗药物在癌症及疾病中的研究进展,最后简单阐述了细胞周期进程研究面临的问题和存在的挑战,以期为后续细胞周期进程的深入研究提供参考和思路。     

Cdk5 regulates multiple cellular events in neural development,function and disease

Cyclin‐dependent kinases (CDKs) generally regulate cell proliferation in dividing cells, including neural progenitors. In contrast, an unconventional CDK, Cdk5, is predominantly activated in post‐mitotic cells, and involved in various cellular events, such as microtubule and actin cytoskeletal organization, cell–cell and cell–extracellular matrix adhesions, and membrane trafficking. Interestingly, recent studies have indicated that Cdk5 is associated with several cell cycle‐related proteins, Cyclin‐E and p27^kip1. Taking advantage of multiple functionality, Cdk5 plays important roles in neuronal migration, layer formation, axon elongation and dendrite arborization in many regions of the developing brain, including cerebral cortex and cerebellum. Cdk5 is also required for neurogenesis at least in the cerebral cortex. Furthermore, Cdk5 is reported to control neurotransmitter release at presynaptic sites, endocytosis of the NMDA receptor at postsynaptic sites and dendritic spine remodeling, and thereby regulate synaptic plasticity and memory formation and extinction. In addition to these physiological roles in brain development and function, Cdk5 is associated with many neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. In this review, I will introduce the physiological and pathological roles of Cdk5 in mammalian brains from the viewpoint of not only in vivo phenotypes but also its molecular and cellular functions.