Attitudes to Animal use in Children

ABSTRACT

Six hundred and fifty children, aged between 11 and 15 years, from an urban and a rural area, completed a questionnaire in which they provided information regarding their attitudes towards 13 issues involving the use of animals. Information regarding the pets the children owned was also obtained. The child's sex (male, female), age (11–15 years), and residence area (urban, rural) were related to pet ownership, and, including pet ownership, to attitudes towards the use of animals. Over 90% of the sample owned a pet, with the dog being the most common. More pets were owned by children from rural than urban areas. With regards to the animal-use issues, all the children discriminated between animal uses that lead to death of or injury to the animal and those regarded as exploitation. Children disagreed more with uses leading to the animal's death or injury. Females expressed more disagreement than males, and children from urban areas expressed more disagreement than children from rural settings. The study revealed pet ownership to be high among school children. This was matched by a high concern over activities leading to the animal's death or injury, indicating that strong attitudes to animal use are formed early during development. Early education may be important in shaping these attitudes.     

Attitudes and Actions of Pet Caregivers in New Providence,The Bahamas,in the Context of Those of Their American Counterparts

ABSTRACT

This paper reports the attitudes and actions of 614 Bahamian pet caregivers towards their pets, irrespective of the type of pet kept. The results are discussed in the context of an American study by Pamela Carlisle-Frank and Joshua Frank, published in 2006, which posed similar questions. While Bahamians appeared to interact less with their pets than Americans (e.g., 56.9% of Bahamians took pets on walks compared with 71.5% of Americans), they had some important attitudes towards animals in common with Americans, such as disapproving of declawing of cats (67.9% of Bahamians and 71.1% of Americans) and long-term chaining of dogs (83.0% of Bahamians and 84.9% of Americans), and the recognition of the need to help animals (85.0% of Bahamians and 90.5% of Americans). Some Bahamian respondents voluntarily suggested that white people and black people cared for animals differently. The results suggest that the differences between the two communities, in terms of actions and attitudes towards pets, may explain why some American visitors to The Bahamas think that Bahamians do not care for their pets. These differences are of potentially great economic importance, as most tourists visiting The Bahamas come from the US.     

Why Children Keep Pets: The Influence of Child and Family Characteristics

Abstract

Two separate but complementary questionnaire surveys were undertaken to assess the relationship between various demographic and family variables and individual variation in levels of childhood pet ownership. The first survey investigated pet ownership levels in a cross-section of families with schoolaged children. In the second, a large sample of university students were invited to report retrospectively on the pets they and their families had owned during their childhood. Results from both surveys showed that age, gender, sibling status and number, and parental attitudes toward pets were all significantly related to levels of childhood pet ownership. The number of children in the family, and parents' attitudes toward pets, were also found to be significantly related to levels of family pet ownership.     

Exploring Children’s Perspectives on the Welfare Needs of Pet Animals

Children are increasingly viewed as important recipients of educational interventions to improve animal welfare, yet research examining their perspectives is lacking, particularly within the UK. Helping children to care appropriately for animals depends, not least, on an ability to understand the needs of different species and correctly identify cues given by the animal that indicate its welfare state. This study began to explore: (a) children’s perceptions of welfare needs, focusing on four common pet animals; (b) influences on the development of knowledge; (c) beliefs about whether or not (all) animals are sentient, and (d) their confidence in identifying when their own pets are in need. Fourteen focus groups were carried out with 53 children aged 7 to 13 years. Findings highlighted an affirmative response that animals have feelings (dogs especially), albeit with doubts about this applying universally. There was wide variation in children’s knowledge of welfare needs, even among owners of the animal in question. Conversely, some children lacked confidence in spite of the extensive knowledge they had developed through direct experience. An important finding was a perceived difficulty in identifying the needs of particular species or specific types of need in their own pets. Fitting well with a recent emphasis on “positive welfare,” children felt that many animals need demonstrative love and attention, especially cats and dogs. While there is clearly scope for educating children about common needs and cues that indicate animals’ welfare state, other areas pose a greater challenge. Emotional connection seems important in the development of extensive knowledge and concern for welfare. Accordingly, animals that do not possess the kind of behavioral repertoire that is easy to interpret or allows for a perceived sense of reciprocity are possibly at risk of negative welfare experiences.     

Assessing Effectiveness of a Nonhuman Animal Welfare Education Program for Primary School Children

Nonhuman animal welfare education aims to promote positive relationships between children and animals and thus improve animal welfare, yet few scientific evaluations of these programs exist. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of an education program developed by the Scottish Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (SPCA) that included 4 interventions focusing on pets (companion animals), wild animals, farm animals, and general animal rescues. Knowledge, attachment to pets, and attitudes and beliefs about animal minds were assessed at pretest, posttest, and delayed posttest using a questionnaire administered to 1,217 Scottish children aged 7 to 13 years old. Results showed a significant positive impact of the program on knowledge about animals and the Scottish SPCA for all interventions. The pet and farming interventions significantly impacted children’s beliefs about animal minds. There were trends toward improvements in a range of other measures. This study highlights the importance of teaching animal welfare education to children for early prevention of animal cruelty, discusses the need to base this education on theory and research to find effective change, and demonstrates how evidence-based practice can inform future education programs.     

Attitudes,knowledge and wild animals as pets in Costa Rica

Abstract

A nationwide survey in Costa Rica, using Kellert's conceptual framework (Kellert, S. R. 1996. The Value of Life. Washington D.C., Island Press), revealed at least five attitude dimensions toward animals. Overall, Costa Rican adults have a strong sentimental attitude toward animals, an expression of feelings of affection toward animals. In contrast, the materialistic attitude, which regards animals as resources and praises acts of control over them, is weak. This reflects a prevailing opposition to the act of hunting per se, rather than to its potentially detrimental effect on natural populations. There is a strong inquisitive attitude, corresponding to a widespread interest in learning about the biology of animals and their habitats. High scores on the ethical attitude indicate concern for the ethical treatment of animals and nature. The schematic attitude emphasizes the role of aesthetic appearance in the preferences for certain animals and acknowledges feelings of aversion, dislike or fear of some animals. Scores for this attitude were weakly positive. The attitude profile of Costa Ricans is probably incomplete, given the small battery of questions used in this study and differences between this and Kellert's study in the assignment of questions to particular attitudes resulting from the factor analysis. Aesthetic appeal of the animals, compassion, affection and a desire to please and stimulate the children are important motives for the acquisition of wild animals as pets. These positive feelings and a misguided empathy for animals backfire by condemning these pets to an alien environment and inadequate care. The current study also showed that adults who keep wildlife have better biological knowledge than those who never kept wildlife as pets. In addition, Costa Ricans ranked highest in the percentage of correct answers to five questions about animals, in comparison to Kellert's data for US and Japanese citizens (Kellert S.R. 1993. Journal of Social Issues 49: 53–69). Such knowledge of natural history and an animal protection profile, however, do not translate into more animal friendly practices, as seen by the keeping of wildlife as pets under conditions of concern. Rather than changing the attitudes of Costa Ricans toward animals, the challenge is to increase the awareness about the animals' needs and thereby trigger the ethical concern for their well-being.     

Abstracts

Abstract

This study examines the effects of gender in conjunction with age, pet ownership, and sibling status on children's ideas about domestic animal young (puppies and kittens) and how they are nurtured. A theoretical model accounting for gender differences in the development of nurturance in children is presented. The model argues that children may develop knowledge about nurture from many sources, including animals, and that gender differences are most likely when behavior (versus knowledge) and baby care (versus animal care) are assessed. Ideas about animal young and animal caregiving of their young were individually assessed in structured interviews with 43 preschoolers and 42 second graders. Boys' ideas increased with age, while that of girls did not. Having a younger sibling was associated with more knowledge in boys but not in girls. Children with pets had more ideas about how adult animals cared for their young than did non-pet owners.     

The Relationship between Empathy,Perception of Pain and Attitudes toward Pets among Norwegian Dog Owners

ABSTRACT

Anthropomorphism, attachment level, and belief in animal mind, as well as owners' level of empathy and attitudes toward their pets, are some of the factors that affect human–animal interactions. Owners' ability to identify painful conditions in their pets may have important consequences for the welfare of these animals. In addition to characterizing the typical Norwegian dog owner, the aim of this work was to study the relationship between empathy, attitudes, and perceived animal pain. A sample of 3,413 dog owners in Norway received an internet-based questionnaire (QuestBack?), to which1896 responded. The questionnaire included four parts: demographics, the Pet Attitude Scale (PAS), the Animal Empathy Scale (AES), and the Pain Assessment Instrument (PAI). For the PAI, participants were presented with 17 photos, showing dogs experiencing painful situations of varying degrees, and were asked to rate the level of pain they believed each animal was enduring, using a Visual Analogue Scale (VAS). Results showed that Norwegian dog owners had very high levels of animal-directed empathy and equally high levels of positive attitudes toward pets. There were differences based on gender, childhood pet keeping, income and education. Differences were also found rooted in owners' use of their dog, whether kept for companionship or hunting, as well as household size, an indication of human social relations. A strong, positive correlation (r = 0.58) was found between animal-directed empathy and positive attitudes toward pets. Empathy was found to be the best predictor of how people rated pain in dogs. The correlations were, however, moderate, indicating that other processes are also involved when observing animals in pain.     

Sex differences in the antecedents of animal use attitudes

Abstract

Sex differences in attitudes toward the use of animals have been reported in previous research. This study examines sex differences in the levels of, and the interrelations among, three potential antecedents of attitudes toward animal use: caring value orientation, pet care experience and attachment to pets. Path analysis showed that pet care experience, through attachment to pets, accounted for a significant portion of variance in animal use attitudes in both males and females. Caring value orientation was directly linked to animal use attitudes in females, but in males, caring value orientation affected attachment to pets, which in turn impacted on animal use attitudes. Results are discussed in terms of Gilligan's theory of socialization.     

Animal-Related Activities and Appreciation of Animals Among Children and Adolescents

ABSTRACT

Five hundred and sixty-two children and adolescents, aged between nine and 15 years, from one urban and three rural areas in Southern Norway, completed a questionnaire in which they expressed their degree of preference for various animal species, participation in animal-related activities, and the presence of pets at home. The results showed that a majority of the respondents had an animal at home (71%), and participated in animal-related activities such as fishing (72%), feeding birds (74%), and reading about animals (66%). Participation in most animal-related activities decreased with increasing age. Pet owners liked farm and wild animals more than did respondents without pets. Positive associations were found between the liking of animal species and participation in animal-related activities. Gender differences were largest for horseback riding (girls most) and for fishing and hunting (boys most). Those who reported allergic reactions to animals, or had been injured by an animal, liked animals as much as, or more than, did the other respondents.     

Selective battering of the family pet

Abstract

We examined the attitudes, perceptions and behaviors of both pet-abusing and non-pet-abusing perpetrators of family violence. Using data collected from victims residing at domestic violence shelters, results indicated that relative to their non-pet-abusing counterparts, pet-abusing batterers tend to less often show affection toward their pets, more often communicate with their pets only through commands and threats, more often view companion animals as property, are more likely to scapegoat their pets, and are more likely to have unrealistic expectations about their pets, more frequently punish their pets, and are more sensitive to stressful life events—particularly those perceived to be caused by the pet. We also queried respondents about batterers' past history with pets, the frequency and type of abuse inflicted on animals, the number of batterers who hunt, the frequency with which children witnessed abuse of the family pet, the impact of animal guardianship on decisions to remain with or return to the batterer, and where companion animals ended up when victims fled the batterer.     

Hiding in the dark: Local ecological knowledge about slow loris in Sarawak sheds light on relationships between human populations and wild animals

Local ecological knowledge (LEK) increases understanding of certain species and the threats they face, especially little-studied taxa for which data on distribution and conservation are often lacking. We conducted 111 semi-structured interviews in Sarawak, Malaysia, to collect local knowledge about the behavior and distribution of the Philippine slow loris (Nycticebus menagensis) from two ethnic groups, the Iban and the Penan. Our study revealed that male Penan respondents, generally hunters, who frequently go into the forest were better at identifying animals from pictures. Overall, the Penan have a more detailed knowledge of slow loris behaviors, habitat, and distribution than the Iban. The two ethnic groups have different attitudes towards slow loris as the Penan hunt, eat, or keep them as pets while the Iban consider them sacred and signifiers of good luck. We advocate the use of LEK for providing complementary information to scientific methods in the study of cryptic animals.     

Children'S Attitudes About the Humane Treatment of Animals and Empathy: One-Year Follow up of a School-Based Intervention

ABSTRACT

This study assessed the maintenance of the effect of a year-long school-based humane education program on fourth grade children's attitudes toward animals. Generalization to human-directed empathy was also measured. Using a pretest-posttest (Year 1) follow-up (Year 2) design and ANCOVA, we found that the experimental group (children who experienced the program) humane attitudes mean was greater than the control group mean at initial posttesting and at the Year 2 follow up. At both Year 1 and Year 2 posttesting, the enhancement of attitudes toward animals generalized to human-directed empathy, especially when the quality of the children's relations with their pets was considered as a covariate. The results contribute to the growing literature on the significance of the relations between children and animals, and serve to encourage humane education efforts.     

New Books

ABSTRACT

Past research found that positive attitudes toward animals are positively correlated with human-directed empathy. One of the most common reasons for becoming a vegetarian is to avoid cruelty toward animals. Based on the above literature, we hypothesized that vegetarians, especially moral vegetarians, would show higher human-directed empathy and more positive attitudes toward pets and other animals than non-vegetarians. Seventy-two vegetarians and 67 non-vegetarians participated in the study. Pet attitudes were measured using the modified Pet Attitude Scale (PAS-M), and human-directed empathy was measured with the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI), which has four subscales. Vegetarian males had significantly higher empathy and significantly more positive attitudes toward pets compared with non-vegetarian males; however, there was no differences among females. There were no differences between moral vegetarians and non-moral vegetarians on human-directed empathy and attitude toward pets. Empathy toward humans and attitudes toward pets were positively correlated for both vegetarians and non-vegetarians. We conceptualized the dietary choice of a vegetarian as a lifestyle that can be explained by their political thinking, personality, and personal value systems.     

Testing the Roles of Intergroup Anxiety and Inclusion of Animals in the Self as Mechanisms that Underpin the “Pets as Ambassadors” Effect

It has been suggested that pets provide the opportunity for humans to develop more positive attitudes and relationships toward a wider range of animal types—including toward non-pet animals—this is called the “pets as ambassadors” hypothesis. In this study, we build both on research conducted on human–animal relations and in social psychology to investigate the hypothesis, as well as two likely mechanisms involved in this effect: inter- group anxiety (toward animals) and inclusion of animals in the self. An online questionnaire was completed by 238 Canadian participants (M = 28.6 years old, SD = 8.53; 102 women). Using structural equation modeling (SEM), we tested a model whereby contact with pets predicted greater inclusion of ani- mals in the self and lower intergroup anxiety toward animals in general. In turn, these two psychological processes predicted more positive attitudes toward a broad range of animal types (e.g., wild/pest animals, animals used for human purposes) and animals in general. Finally, these positive attitudes toward animals predicted more pro-social behavioral intentions toward animals. The hypothesized model showed a good fit. Bootstrapping analyses further con- firmed the mediating roles of inclusion of animals in the self and intergroup anxiety toward animals in the associations between contact with pets and attitudes toward animals in general. The hypothesized model also presented a more satisfactory fit compared with an alternative model. Altogether, these findings underline the importance of contact with pets in fostering more positive human–animal relations and promoting animal welfare. These results also support the applicability of social psychological theories and principles in the realm of human–animal relations.     

A Comparison of Bahamian Cat and Dog Caregivers on New Providence

This article offers the first comparison of actions and attitudes of Afro-Caribbean caregivers who keep only cats or only dogs. A total of 330 Bahamian caregivers found that women primarily keep cats; men primarily keep dogs. Cat keepers were more attached to their companion animals but no more sensitive toward nonhuman animal-welfare issues than dog keepers. When considering actions toward pets, the study noted few differences between the two types of caregivers. Both types reported low neutering rates and lack of confinement. Findings suggest that although both cat and dog caregivers thought themselves good pet caregivers, both types would benefit from animal-welfare education. In communities where cat populations pose a threat to indigenous wildlife and current care-keeping practices may be a cause for concern, caregivers may need education as to the implications of their actions. Given the similarity in dog-keeping practices in the West Indies, the findings about cat caregivers reported here may be applicable to other Afro-Caribbean communities. Further research on cats should be done to allow better understanding of the dynamics and behavior of cat populations on small islands.     

Social and Individual Components of Animal Contact in Preschool Children

ABSTRACT

Humans are generally biophilic. Still, for unknown reasons, interest in animals varies substantially among individuals. Our goal was to investigate how differential interest of children towards animals might be related to social competence and personality. We proposed two alternatives: 1) Children may compensate for potential deficits in social competence by resorting to animals, and 2) Socially well-connected children may show a particular interest in animals. We focused on relationships between age, gender, family background, play behavior, personality components, and contact with rabbits in 50 children (22 boys/28 girls; 3 to 7 years of age) at a preschool in Krems/Austria. Data were analyzed using GLM. We found that each one of these variables had significant impact on intensity of engagement with the rabbits. In general, girls, children with siblings, and children without pets were more oriented towards the rabbits than were boys, children without siblings, or pet-owning children. The older the children, the less frequently they occupied themselves with the rabbits but the longer they remained when they did engage them. Furthermore, we found that the more “Confident/Respected” (PCA factor 1) and less “Patient/Calm,” “Cheerful/Sociable,” and “Solitary” (PCA factors 2–4) the children, the more time they spent in direct occupation with rabbits. Most effects of the investigated variables varied between boys and girls. By and large, our findings support the hypothesis that the “socially competent” children were particularly interested in the animals. Also, children's social styles, as evinced in interactions with peers, were generally reflected in how they interacted with the rabbits.     

Are Dogs Children,Companions, or Just Animals? Understanding Variations in People's Orientations toward Animals

ABSTRACT

This paper examines the variations in dog owners' attitudes toward, treatment of, and interactions with, animals. Based on 28 in-depth interviews with dog owners from a county in the Midwestern United States, I demonstrate that pets are an important part of many people's lives, often providing companionship, entertainment, and meaningful interactions; however, there are notable, distinct variations in how people relate to them. Pet owners typically exhibit one of three orientations toward pets: “dominionistic,” “humanistic,” or “protectionistic.” The dominionistic have relatively low regard for their pets, valuing them primarily for the uses they provide, such as protection. Those employing the humanistic orientation elevate their pets to the status of surrogate humans and value their pets primarily for the affective benefits they enjoy from their close attachments. The protectionistic have high regard for both pets and animals more generally. They view pets as valuable companions and as creatures with their own interests. This typology offers insights for understanding the source and variety of the often ambiguous and contradictory relations between people and pets. I argue that individual characteristics and experiences impact how people understand and relate to animals, in large part, because they represent exposure to different cultural messages. I suggest that these orientations represent three sets of distinct cultural logics, each with distinct histories and contemporary sources.     

Parental Perceptions of their Children's Involvement with Household Pets: A Test of a Specificity Model of Nurturance

ABSTRACT

To test hypotheses derived from a specificity model of the development of children's nurturance, parents of preschool, second-grade and fifth-grade children (n=707) reported the frequency of their children's play with and care of pets as well as play and care directed to younger siblings, non-family babies, and elderly persons. Parents also reported on their children's frequency of expressed interest in animals, babies, and nurture in general. As predicted, gender differences were found for frequency of time spent with babies but not with pets. Frequency of time with pets was related to expressed interest in animals but not in babies. Children who had pets but no younger siblings were reported to spend more time with pets than were children with both pets and younger siblings. Children without pets were reported to express interest in babies more often than did pet owning children.     

Pet ownership and associated respiratory diseases

Background Studies have shown that pets are very important sensitizing agents in patients with asthma. Respiratory disorders and allergic diseases are common in the State of Qatar. Objective The aim of the present study was to determine whether exposure to pets and domestic animals plays a significant role in the development of asthma and allergic rhinitis among Qatari school children aged 6–14 years. Design A cross-sectional prospective study. Setting Public schools for boys and girls in urban and semi-urban areas. Subjects A total of 3,500 Qatari school boys and girls aged 6–14 years were approached. After exclusion of those who did not give consent for the study and incomplete questionnaires, 3,283 (98.3%) participants were included in the data analysis. Methods A multistage sampling technique was used and different schools from urban and semi-urban areas were selected. A standard questionnaire was distributed to parents of randomly selected school children aged 6–14 years between February 2003 and February 2004. Results The overall prevalence of asthma was 19.8% and the mean age of the children was 9.0 ± 2.0 years. The male and female percentages were 52.3% and 47.7% respectively. Nine hundred and ninety-six families out of 3,283 (30.3%) owned pets. It was found that among children with no family history of asthma, the relative risk (RR) of asthma with pets at home was 1.19 and the 95% confidence interval (CI) was 1.0–1.4 (P = 0.025). The RR of having allergic rhinitis was 1.60 (95% CI = 1.4–1.8; P < 0.001) and risk of having eczema was also significantly higher in participants with pets at home (RR = 1.28; 95% CI = 1.1–1.5; P < 0.001). Conclusion In the present study, the prevalence of asthma, allergic rhinitis, and eczema was significantly more common in families with domestic animals than in those without.