The Semantic Structure Of Public Speaking (On Meaningful Perception)

A study of the psychological mechanisms underlying the perception of messages and of processes transforming the products of such perception (thoughts, images, percepts) into needs, motives, goals, and attitudes in the perceiver has a rich tradition of research behind it in the psychology of propaganda and mass communication. On the one hand, this has led to the accumulation of numerous interesting empirical facts and the development of corresponding theoretical hypotheses that shed light on various aspects of the perception of messages; but on the other hand, it has resulted in rigid fixation of certain a priori conceptual models of a phenomenal field that prevent any deeper probing into the vertical structure of the mechanisms of perception and has driven research to spread itself thinly in a horizontal direction. Therefore, although the new second-order problems that have been singled out concerning message perception are doubtless important and interesting, they leave unchallenged the validity and productiveness of the way the main problem itself is currently formulated. A few modifications have been attempted by contemporary investigators; but as a rule, these have been no more than particular terminological refinements and innovations. (1) A horizontal profile of the problem concerning us here has been quite fully presented in a collective work devoted especially to this topic [9].     

A Contribution to the Problem of the Role of Set and Attitude in Perceptual Processes

Different human beings perceive the same phenomena, events, and things in different ways. This fact, which we encounter at every step in our daily lives and in all spheres of our activity is one of the central problems in the psychology of perception. Observations and experiments have established, beyond question, that past experience is one of the circumstances involved. The first problem studied in this connection was the role of the personality factor in perception. After all, past experience is the property of the personality. The problem of the subjective factor also arose in connection with the fact that psychological activity is generally purposeful, and this is particularly true of the processes of thought and perception. As a matter of fact, it would be no exaggeration to state that the problem of the subjective factor faces all schools of perceptual psychology to one degree or another and in one form or another, no matter how widely their theoretical positions differ.     

Two Approaches to Study of the Perception of Time

From the standpoint of psychology, study of man's perception of the world around him presupposes study of the process and the result of the development of a subjective reflection of the objective world. The objects of perception are the concrete objects in the surrounding world, and empirical investigation is designed to seek and find lawful correspondences between the physical characteristics (properties) of those objects and the psychological characteristics (properties) of the image of that world. In such an approach, the question of the object of perception is the key to resolving the problem of time perception.     

The uniquely human capacity to throw evolved from a non-throwing primate: an evolutionary dissociation between action and perception

Humans are uniquely endowed with the ability to engage in accurate, high-momentum throwing. Underlying this ability is a unique morphological adaptation that enables the characteristic rotation of the arm and pelvis. What is unknown is whether the psychological mechanisms that accompany the act of throwing are also uniquely human. Here we explore this problem by asking whether free-ranging rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta), which lack both the morphological and neural structures to throw, nonetheless recognize the functional properties of throwing. Rhesus not only understand that human throwing represents a threat, but that some aspects of a throwing event are more relevant than others; specifically, rhesus are sensitive to the kinematics, direction and speed of the rotating arm, the direction of the thrower's eye gaze and the object thrown. These results suggest that the capacity to throw did not coevolve with psychological mechanisms that accompany throwing; rather, this capacity may have built upon pre-existing perceptual processes. These results are consistent with a growing body of work showing that non-human animals often exhibit perceptual competencies that do not show up in their motor responses, suggesting evolutionary dissociations between the systems of perception that provide understanding of the world and those that mediate action on the world.     

Anything you can do, you can do better: neural substrates of incentive-based performance enhancement

Performance-based pay schemes in many organizations share the fundamental assumption that the performance level for a given task will increase as a function of the amount of incentive provided. Consistent with this notion, psychological studies have demonstrated that expectations of reward can improve performance on a plethora of different cognitive and physical tasks, ranging from problem solving to the voluntary regulation of heart rate. However, much less is understood about the neural mechanisms of incentivized performance enhancement. In particular, it is still an open question how brain areas that encode expectations about reward are able to translate incentives into improved performance across fundamentally different cognitive and physical task requirements.     

Exploring Responses to Art in Adolescence: A Behavioral and Eye-Tracking Study

Adolescence is a peculiar age mainly characterized by physical and psychological changes that may affect the perception of one''s own and others'' body. This perceptual peculiarity may influence the way in which bottom-up and top-down processes interact and, consequently, the perception and evaluation of art. This study is aimed at investigating, by means of the eye-tracking technique, the visual explorative behavior of adolescents while looking at paintings. Sixteen color paintings, categorized as dynamic and static, were presented to twenty adolescents; half of the images represented natural environments and half human individuals; all stimuli were displayed under aesthetic and movement judgment tasks. Participants'' ratings revealed that, generally, nature images are explicitly evaluated as more appealing than human images. Eye movement data, on the other hand, showed that the human body exerts a strong power in orienting and attracting visual attention and that, in adolescence, it plays a fundamental role during aesthetic experience. In particular, adolescents seem to approach human-content images by giving priority to elements calling forth movement and action, supporting the embodiment theory of aesthetic perception.     

Changes in health perceptions after exposure to human suffering: using discrete emotions to understand underlying processes

Background

The aim of this study was to examine whether exposure to human suffering is associated with negative changes in perceptions about personal health. We further examined the relation of possible health perception changes, to changes in five discrete emotions (i.e., fear, guilt, hostility/anger, and joviality), as a guide to understand the processes underlying health perception changes, provided that each emotion conveys information regarding triggering conditions.

Methodology/Findings

An experimental group (N = 47) was exposed to images of human affliction, whereas a control group (N = 47) was exposed to relaxing images. Participants in the experimental group reported more health anxiety and health value, as well as lower health-related optimism and internal health locus of control, in comparison to participants exposed to relaxing images. They also reported more fear, guilt, hostility and sadness, as well as less joviality. Changes in each health perception were related to changes in particular emotions.

Conclusion

These findings imply that health perceptions are shaped in a constant dialogue with the representations about the broader world. Furthermore, it seems that the core of health perception changes lies in the acceptance that personal well-being is subject to several potential threats, as well as that people cannot fully control many of the factors the determine their own well-being.     

Prise en charge actuelle de l’ejaculation prematuree

Considered as the most common male sexual problem, premature ejaculation is characterized by the absence of control over the ejaculatory reflex with a correspondingly poor perception of sexual arousal and pleasure. After first considering the nature of the problems underlying premature ejaculation, this article emphasizes the relevance of pathophysiological aspects and considers the main treatments available according to the various contributory factors identifiable during investigation in relation to whether the problem is structural or psychological. Successful treatments is dependent upon modifying and correcting the mental and sensory processes of the premature ejaculator during his sexual activity. When premature ejaculation is an isolated symptom without a concomitant psychological problem, it may be considered a sexual learning disability and has excellent prognosis with sex therapy using behavioural methods (“squeeze technique”, “start-stop technique”). In other cases, the symptom of premature ejaculation is associated with deeper psychological problems and treatment requires a more complex psychodynamic approach, but one which does not exclude behavioural measures when appropriate.     

Towards neuro-inspired symbolic models of cognition: linking neural dynamics to behaviors through asynchronous communications

A computational architecture modeling the relation between perception and action is proposed. Basic brain processes representing synaptic plasticity are first abstracted through asynchronous communication protocols and implemented as virtual microcircuits. These are used in turn to build mesoscale circuits embodying parallel cognitive processes. Encoding these circuits into symbolic expressions gives finally rise to neuro-inspired programs that are compiled into pseudo-code to be interpreted by a virtual machine. Quantitative evaluation measures are given by the modification of synapse weights over time. This approach is illustrated by models of simple forms of behaviors exhibiting cognition up to the third level of animal awareness. As a potential benefit, symbolic models of emergent psychological mechanisms could lead to the discovery of the learning processes involved in the development of cognition. The executable specifications of an experimental platform allowing for the reproduction of simulated experiments are given in “Appendix”.     

Low blood pressure,low mood?

OBJECTIVE--To determine whether a set of physical symptoms is associated with low blood pressure and to investigate the possible role of psychological factors in their occurrence. DESIGN--Analysis of data collected by questionnaire and physical screening from the first phase of the Whitehall II study, a cohort study of an employed population. SETTING--23 civil service departments in London. SUBJECTS--10,314 male and female London based civil servants aged between 35 and 55. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES--Symptoms of dizziness-giddiness and unexplained tiredness; psychological functioning as measured by the 30 item general health questionnaire in which the response "no more than usual" to an item about disease was scored as indicating chronic illness. RESULTS--Dizziness-giddiness in men and unexplained tiredness in both men and women were significantly related to low systolic blood pressure. There was a highly significant inverse relation between general health questionnaire score and systolic blood pressure for both men and women, which persisted after controlling for potentially confounding variables, including age, body mass index, drug treatment, physical illness, and exercise. This association of low blood pressure with physical symptoms was no longer significant when general health questionnaire score was controlled for. CONCLUSIONS--There seems a strong relation between low systolic blood pressure and minor psychological dysfunction. Associated physical symptoms seem to be secondary to the primary disturbance in mental state.     

Epistemic causality and evidence-based medicine

Causal claims in biomedical contexts are ubiquitous albeit they are not always made explicit. This paper addresses the question of what causal claims mean in the context of disease. It is argued that in medical contexts causality ought to be interpreted according to the epistemic theory. The epistemic theory offers an alternative to traditional accounts that cash out causation either in terms of "difference-making" relations or in terms of mechanisms. According to the epistemic approach, causal claims tell us about which inferences (e.g., diagnoses and prognoses) are appropriate, rather than about the presence of some physical causal relation analogous to distance or gravitational attraction. It is shown that the epistemic theory has important consequences for medical practice, in particular with regard to evidence-based causal assessment.     

Size and shape: the developmental regulation of static allometry in insects

Among all organisms, the size of each body part or organ scales with overall body size, a phenomenon called allometry. The study of shape and form has attracted enormous interest from biologists, but the genetic, developmental and physiological mechanisms that control allometry and the proportional growth of parts have remained elusive. Recent progress in our understanding of body-size regulation provides a new synthetic framework for thinking about the mechanisms and the evolution of allometric scaling. In particular, insulin/IGF signaling, which plays major roles in longevity, diabetes and the regulation of cell, organ and body size, might also be centrally involved in regulating organismal shape. Here we review recent advances in the fields of growth regulation and endocrinology and use them to construct a developmental model of static allometry expression in insects. This model serves as the foundation for a research program that will result in a deeper understanding of the relationship between growth and form, a question that has fascinated biologists for centuries.     

Bird speech perception and vocal production: a comparison with humans

Research into speech perception by nonhuman animals can be crucially informative in assessing whether specific perceptual phenomena in humans have evolved to decode speech, or reflect more general traits. Birds share with humans not only the capacity to use complex vocalizations for communication but also many characteristics of its underlying developmental and mechanistic processes; thus, birds are a particularly interesting group for comparative study. This review first discusses commonalities between birds and humans in perception of speech sounds. Several psychoacoustic studies have shown striking parallels in seemingly speech-specific perceptual phenomena, such as categorical perception of voice-onset-time variation, categorization of consonants that lack phonetic invariance, and compensation for coarticulation. Such findings are often regarded as evidence for the idea that the objects of human speech perception are auditory or acoustic events rather than articulations. Next, I highlight recent research on the production side of avian communication that has revealed the existence of vocal tract filtering and articulation in bird species-specific vocalization, which has traditionally been considered a hallmark of human speech production. Together, findings in birds show that many of characteristics of human speech perception are not uniquely human but also that a comparative approach to the question of what are the objects of perception--articulatory or auditory events--requires careful consideration of species-specific vocal production mechanisms.     

The physiological criteria for the ability of stimulus recognition

Neural mechanisms are considered of such unconscious psychic phenomena as subliminal perception of semantic stimuli, psychological defence, unaccountable emotions. The results are given of many years studies conducted by means of conditioned, electrophysiological and psychophysiological methods. The possibility is proved of semantic analysis of perception on unconscious level and formation of association with the help of unrealized emotionally significant words. At present it is possible to describe only few neural mechanisms of consciousness and unconsciousness; however, the development of contemporary psychophysiology allows to state that the analysis of this problem from scientific positions is the most correct way to learn the nature of the brain processes which are the basis of these complicated psychic phenomena.     

Outdoor thermal comfort characteristics in the hot and humid region from a gender perspective

Thermal comfort is a subjective psychological perception of people based also on physiological thermoregulation mechanisms when the human body is exposed to a combination of various environmental factors including air temperature, air humidity, wind speed, and radiation conditions. Due to the importance of gender in the issue of outdoor thermal comfort, this study compared and examined the thermal comfort-related differences between male and female subjects using previous data from Taiwanese questionnaire survey. Compared with males, the results indicated that females in Taiwan are less tolerant to hot conditions and intensely protect themselves from sun exposure. Our analytical results are inconsistent with the findings of previous physiological studies concerning thermal comfort indicating that females have superior thermal physiological tolerance than males. On the contrary, our findings can be interpreted on psychological level. Environmental behavioral learning theory was adopted in this study to elucidate this observed contradiction between the autonomic thermal physiological and psychological–behavioral aspects. Women might desire for a light skin tone through social learning processes, such as observation and education, which is subsequently reflected in their psychological perceptions (fears of heat and sun exposure) and behavioral adjustments (carrying umbrellas or searching for shade). Hence, these unique psychological and behavioral phenomena cannot be directly explained by autonomic physiological thermoregulation mechanisms. The findings of this study serve as a reference for designing spaces that accommodates gender-specific thermal comfort characteristics. Recommendations include providing additional suitable sheltered areas in open areas, such as city squares and parks, to satisfy the thermal comfort needs of females.     

Hox genes and the crustacean body plan

The Crustacea present a variety of body plans not encountered in any other class or phylum of the Metazoa. Here we review our current knowledge on the complement and expression of the Hox genes in Crustacea, addressing questions related to the evolution of body architecture. Specifically, we discuss the molecular mechanisms underlying the homeotic transformation of legs into feeding appendages, which occurred in parallel in several branches of the crustacean evolutionary tree. A second issue that can be approached by the comparative study of Hox genes and their expression in the Crustacea bears on the homology of the abdomen. We discuss whether the so-called "abdominal" tagma of the crustaceans is homologous to the abdomen of insects. In addition, the homology of the abdomen between malacostracan and non-malacostracan crustaceans has also been questioned. We also address the question of the molecular developmental basis of the apparent lack of an abdomen in barnacles. We discuss these issues in relation to the problem of constraint versus adaptation in evolution.     

The Phenomenon of Personalization of the Environment: A Theoretical

The changes taking place in the residential environment have raised a very acute question: How to give due consideration to the distinctive features of the particular human being and the laws and patterns of his activity and social intercourse; how to include the "human element" in the ever more complicated mechanism of environmental planning as the man-made world, from the apartment to urban agglomerations, is shaped and transformed? Quests for an answer to this question over the past fifteen to twenty years have produced a new area of psychological investigation, most commonly referred to as "environmental psychology."     

Review--Interactions between diatoms and stainless steel: focus on biofouling and biocorrosion

There is a considerable body of information regarding bacterially enhanced corrosion, however, this review focuses on diatoms (unicellular algae) whose contribution to biocorrosion is less well studied. The reasons why diatoms have been neglected in studies of biocorrosion in natural waters are discussed and the question whether diatoms should be considered as inert with respect of electrochemical processes is considered. A particular focus is given to the case of stainless steels (SS), which are widely used in variety of applications in natural waters. Basic information on the cell biology of diatoms is included in the review, particularly with respect to their ability to 'sense' and adhere to surfaces. Investigations at the nanoscale are reviewed as these studies provide information about the behavior of cells at interfaces. Recent advances include the use of atomic force microscopy (AFM), although only a few studies have been applied to diatoms. Regarding the electrochemical behavior of SS, the mechanisms by which diatoms influence the potential ennoblement process is discussed. Such studies reveal the association of diatoms, in addition to bacteria, with biocorrosion processes.     

Regeneration and the need for simpler model organisms

The problem of regeneration is fundamentally a problem of tissue homeostasis involving the replacement of cells lost to normal 'wear and tear' (cell turnover), and/or injury. This attribute is of particular significance to organisms possessing relatively long lifespans, as maintenance of all body parts and their functional integration is essential for their survival. Because tissue replacement is broadly distributed among multicellular life-forms, and the molecules and mechanisms controlling cellular differentiation are considered ancient evolutionary inventions, it should be possible to gain key molecular insights about regenerative processes through the study of simpler animals. We have chosen to study and develop the freshwater planarian Schmidtea mediterranea as a model system because it is one of the simplest metazoans possessing tissue homeostasis and regeneration, and because it has become relatively easy to molecularly manipulate this organism. The developmental plasticity and longevity of S. mediterranea is in marked contrast to its better-characterized invertebrate cohorts: the fruitfly Drosophila melanogaster and the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans, both of which have short lifespans and are poor at regenerating tissues. Therefore, planarians present us with new, experimentally accessible contexts in which to study the molecular actions guiding cell fate restriction, differentiation and patterning, each of which is crucial not only for regeneration to occur, but also for the survival and perpetuation of all multicellular organisms.     

Biomedical research practice and therapeutic practice: to whom does the human body belong?

Who owns the human body? This issue has been formerly raised about the status of the slave. Today, it has become a prominent stake for when reflecting on biomedical research and healthcare practices. In our cultures, many answers may be given to this question : they are derived from philosophical or theological traditions ; they are borrowed from anthropological, sociological or psychological knowledge ; they may be formulated in a moral or political perspective. All of them give different insights and reveal one of the various dimensions of the question. When examining the status of the body and its relation to the human subject in the various stages of his/her life (including his/her death), one of the main difficulties is to deal with each of these answers and to understand how they meet and interact in the public debate. Another matter is related to the fact that law also plays a crucial role in the process of giving an answer to this question. In our book, A qui appartient le corps humain ? Médecine, politique et droit (Paris, Belles Lettres, 2004), Claire Crignon-De Oliveira and I have tried to deal with both difficulties. In this article, I focus on the meaning of the various law traditions. In western world, the laws are all derived, up to a certain extent, from the Roman tradition. Whether they have chosen to consider the human body as a property or to associate the body to the person, they have taken very different options. However, an examination of the ways laws are elaborated on this topic shows that these two conceptions can meet in unexpected manners and that lawmaking can give creative answers to both the problem of protecting the person and to the requirements of biomedical research and healthcare practices.