Some Problems of Research in Social Psychology

The field of social psychology is the center of an extremely complex and ideology-laden controversy among Soviet psychologists. The complexity arises chiefly from the fact that in the era approximately bounded by 1930 and 1960 there was no research carried out in the USSR labeled "social psychology." All such research had ceased in the very early 1930s, replaced by the Marxist-Leninist theory of historical materialism that was said to make social psychology superfluous, if not harmful.     

Has psychology “found its true path”? Methods,objectivity, and cries of “crisis” in early twentieth-century French psychology

This article explores how French psychologists understood the state of their field during the first quarter of the twentieth century, and whether they thought it was in crisis. The article begins with the Russian-born psychologist Nicolas Kostyleff and his announcement in 1911 that experimental psychology was facing a crisis. After briefly situating Kostyleff, the article examines his analysis of the troubles facing experimental psychology and his proposed solution, as well as the rather muted response his diagnosis received from the French psychological community. The optimism about the field evident in many of the accounts surveying French psychology during the early twentieth century notwithstanding, a few others did join Kostyleff in declaring that all was not well with experimental psychology. Together their pronouncements suggest that under the surface, important unresolved issues faced the French psychological community. Two are singled out: What was the proper methodology for psychology as a positive science? And what kinds of practices could claim to be objective, and in what sense? The article concludes by examining what these anxieties reveal about the type of science that French psychologists hoped to pursue.     

Vygotsky's Nonclassical Psychology

Nonclassical psychology has laws that differ from those in classical psychology. Nonclassical psychology uncovers the specifically human course of development and views people as self-regulated individuals. Vygotsky's writings reveal his lifelong engagement with the psychology of art, which for him was the essence of the new nonclassical psychology. The author looks at "play" and "positioning" as two key units in understanding nonclassical psychology.     

Impact of Collimonas bacteria on community composition of soil fungi

The genus Collimonas consists of soil bacteria that have the potential to grow at the expense of living fungal hyphae. However, the consequences of this mycophagous ability for soil fungi are unknown. Here we report on the development of fungal communities after introduction of collimonads in a soil that had a low abundance of indigenous collimonads. Development of fungal communities was stimulated by addition of cellulose or by introducing plants ( Plantago lanceolata ). Community composition of total fungi in soil and rhizosphere and of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in roots was examined by PCR-DGGE. The introduction of collimonads altered the composition of all fungal communities studied but had no effects on fungal biomass increase, cellulose degrading activity or plant performance. The most likely explanation for these results is that differences in sensitivity of fungal species to the presence of collimonads result in competitive replacement of species. The lab and greenhouse experiments were complemented with a field experiment. Mesh bags containing sterile sand with or without collimonads were buried in an ex-arable field and a forest. The presence of collimonads had an effect on the composition of fungi invading these bags in the ex-arable site but not in the forest site.     

A Contribution to the Problem of the Role of Set and Attitude in Perceptual Processes

Different human beings perceive the same phenomena, events, and things in different ways. This fact, which we encounter at every step in our daily lives and in all spheres of our activity is one of the central problems in the psychology of perception. Observations and experiments have established, beyond question, that past experience is one of the circumstances involved. The first problem studied in this connection was the role of the personality factor in perception. After all, past experience is the property of the personality. The problem of the subjective factor also arose in connection with the fact that psychological activity is generally purposeful, and this is particularly true of the processes of thought and perception. As a matter of fact, it would be no exaggeration to state that the problem of the subjective factor faces all schools of perceptual psychology to one degree or another and in one form or another, no matter how widely their theoretical positions differ.     

Building a Science of Animal Minds: Lloyd Morgan,Experimentation, and Morgan’s Canon

Conwy Lloyd Morgan (1852–1936) is widely regarded as the father of modern comparative psychology. Yet, Morgan initially had significant doubts about whether a genuine science of comparative psychology was even possible, only later becoming more optimistic about our ability to make reliable inferences about the mental capacities of non-human animals. There has been a fair amount of disagreement amongst scholars of Morgan’s work about the nature, timing, and causes of this shift in Morgan’s thinking. We argue that Morgan underwent two quite different shifts of attitude towards the proper practice of comparative psychology. The first was a qualified acceptance of the Romanesian approach to comparative psychology that he had initially criticized. The second was a shift away from Romanes’ reliance on systematizing anecdotal evidence of animal intelligence towards an experimental approach, focused on studying the development of behaviour. We emphasize the role of Morgan’s evolving epistemological views in bringing about the first shift – in particular, his philosophy of science. We emphasize the role of an intriguing but overlooked figure in the history of comparative psychology in explaining the second shift, T. Mann Jones, whose correspondence with Morgan provided an important catalyst for Morgan’s experimental turn, particularly the special focus on development. We also shed light on the intended function of Morgan’s Canon, the methodological principle for which Morgan is now mostly known. The Canon can only be properly understood by seeing it in the context of Morgan’s own unique experimental vision for comparative psychology.     

Resistance levels ofTyphlodromus occidentalis (Acari: Phytoseiidae) from Washington apple orchards to ten pesticides

Nine Washington populations ofTyphlodromus (=Metaseiulus) occidentalis Nesbitt collected from commercial apple orchards were surveyed for resistance to ten pesticides. A susceptible population collected from wild blackberry which had no history of pesticide exposure was used in estimating resistance development. All populations from apple orchards were tolerant to high concentrations of azinphosmethyl, diazinon, endosulfan and propargite. Resistance was also apparent to these materials, especially for azinphosmethyl which produced over 100-fold resistance levels for several populations. Moderate to low levels of tolerance and resistance development were seen to field concentrations of cyhexatin, formetanate and carbaryl. Fenvalerate, methomyl and methidathion were all very toxic at field concentrations and little evidence of resistance development was apparent. The use of fenvalerate, methomyl or methidathion at a time whenT. occidentalis is active would likely abrogate favorable biological control of pestiferous orchard mites.Scientific Paper No. 7502     

额叶EEG偏侧化预测情绪灵活性

随着社会竞争的日益加剧,人们在生活、学习、工作中都可能遇到各种与情绪有关的事件,如何根据情境的要求和个人的需要对情绪进行灵活性的反应,对每个人而言都至关重要.情绪灵活性的研究已成为情绪心理学、临床心理学、健康心理学等多个领域热衷讨论的课题.研究发现,左侧和右侧前额叶皮层半球不同程度地涉及加工和调节对情绪刺激的情绪反应,因此,额叶脑电图(EEG)偏侧化与情绪灵活性存在密切关系.但是,额叶EEG偏侧化是否是情绪灵活性的一个客观指标,以及额叶EEG偏侧化怎样预测情绪灵活性,至今仍不清楚.本研究测量了通过情绪电影范式诱发被试产生高兴、悲伤、愤怒、恐惧、厌恶等情绪过程中的额叶EEG活动.结果显示,情绪灵活性的激活模式反映的是情绪的动机维度,而不是情绪的效价维度.在静息状态下,对于与接近动机相关的情绪,额叶EEG左侧化的个体的左侧化程度增加;对于与回避动机相关的情绪,其左侧化程度降低.与之相对,静息状态额叶EEG右侧化的个体,无论对于与趋近动机相关的情绪还是与回避动机相关的情绪,额叶EEG偏侧化的程度没有发生改变.研究表明,额叶EEG偏侧化模式能够预测情绪灵活性,额叶EEG左侧化的个体有更灵活的情绪反应,额叶EEG右侧化的个体则有相对不灵活的情绪反应.     

Interactions of temperature and photoperiod in the control of flowering of latitudinal and altitudinal populations of wild strawberry (Fragaria vesca)

Floral induction and development requirements of a range of latitudinal and altitudinal Norwegian populations of the wild strawberry Fragaria vesca L. have been studied in controlled environments. Rooted runner plants were exposed to a range of photoperiods and temperatures for 5 weeks for floral induction and then transferred to long day (LD) at 20°C for flower development. A pronounced interaction of temperature and photoperiod was shown in the control of flowering. At 9°C, flowers were initiated in both short day (SD) and LD conditions, at 15 and 18°C in SD only, whereas no initiation took place at 21°C regardless of daylength conditions. The critical photoperiod for SD floral induction was about 16 h and 14 h at 15 and 18°C, respectively, the induction being incomplete at 18°C. The optimal condition for floral induction was SD at 15°C. A minimum of 4 weeks of exposure to such optimal conditions was required. Although the populations varied significantly in their flowering performance, no clinal relationship was present between latitude of origin and critical photoperiod. Flower development of SD-induced plants was only marginally advanced by LD conditions, while inflorescence elongation and runnering were strongly enhanced by LD at this stage. The main shift in these responses took place at photoperiods between 16 and 17 h. Unlike all other populations studied, a high-latitude population from 70°N ('Alta') had an obligatory vernalization requirement. Although flowering and fruiting in its native Subarctic environment and after overwintering in the field in south Norway, this population did not flower in the laboratory in the absence of vernalization, even with 10 or 15 weeks of exposure to SD at 9°C. Flowering performance in the field likewise indicated a vernalization requirement of this high-latitude population.     

Milestones in ecological thought — A canon for plant ecology

Abstract. Scientific progress in plant ecology is at risk of being obscured by increasing ignorance of major works in the field. The driving force seems to be the twin seductions of novelty and crowd psychology. I illustrate this tendency with three examples from plant community ecology that span the past thirty years of ecological research. I offer, as one solution, the concept of a canon: a short list of essential books that we assume all students and co‐workers have read, a short list that summarizes the wisdom of the discipline. A canon can be likened to DNA, be it in music, art, or science, as it carries forward through time the key ideas that have worked in the past. Without a canon, there is no memory of past achievement, no context for appreciating current work, and no way of judging the quality of newer productions. I suggest 20 essential books (the short canon), and 22 complementary readings, for a total of 42 books needed in any young professional's library on plant ecology.     

Basic Principles of a Psychological Analysis in the Theory of Activity

The general psychological theory of activity created by L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontev, A. R. Luria, and their disciples has entered a critical phase in its development. An external sign of the advent of this phase is the increased frequency of discussions of the role of the category of activity in building the conceptual apparatus of psychology. One hears ever more insistently the idea that the category of activity is threatening to become a kind of monster, ready to devour all other psychological concepts [4,14,37,45]A.n internal sign of the advent of this critical phase in the development of the theory of activity is the discrepancy between the tremendous amount of factual material accumulated in the various special areas of psychology in which the theory of activity plays a special role and the initial principles of this theory, formulated very early, when it was just being developed. As a result, a paradox has emerged: a theory engendered by the exigencies of practice is beginning to be perceived as a theory independent of practice. A critical phase in the development of any theory, like a crisis in the development of the life of a child, means the beginning of a new stage in its existence. For such a critical phase to occur, at least the following steps are, I think, necessary. The first step is enumerating the original principles of the theory of activity. The second involves an analysis, through the prism of these original principles, of all the factual material accumulated in the special areas of psychology and in general psychology. This analysis will overcome the discrepancy between the key principles of the theory of activity and the factual material, and will also help to refine and modify those principles. Finally, the third stage is the development of prospects for basic and applied research, i.e., defining the area for the most immediate development of a psychology built on the basis of a general psychological theory of activity.     

Control of Brennandania lambi (Acari: Pygmephoroidea) by freezing: evaluation of its efficacy and effects on mushroom growth and yield

Laboratory and field studies were conducted to evaluate freezing as a control measure against Brennandania lambi (Krczal) which infests cultivated mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) in Shanghai primarily through contaminated spawn. Laboratory experiments showed that exposure of contaminated spawn at -10° C for 24 h killed all stages of B. lambi. These mites probably died due to the freezing of body tissues during sustained exposure at -10° C for 24 h. because the supercooling points for the egg, active larva, quiescent larva, non-gravid adult and gravid adult of B. lambi were respectively -11.34, -10.96, -11.43, -7.65 and -11.20° C, whereas the freezing points were respectively -6.68, -6.84. -6.56, -3.96 and -6.75 °C. Semi-field experiments showed that compost inoculated with B. lambi-infested spawn that had been exposed at -10 °C for 24 h had no mite infestation during spawn running and thus mycelium growth was normal. Laboratory and field experiments during 1989 to spring 1990 showed that freezing spawn had no effect on mushroom yield. Further field experiments in two farms during fall 1990 showed no effect of freezing spawn on yield in one farm and increased yield in the other farm. A field experiment during 1991 to 1992 also indicated that freezing spawn -10 °C for 24 h to 34 h had no effect on mushroom yield.     

The plurennial life cycles of the European Tettigoniidae (Insecta: Orthoptera)

Summary The effect of drought on embryonic development and on hatching was studied in 13 European Tettigoniidae species. Drought can affect development in three different ways: (1) Embryonic development proceeds slower than if the eggs are in contact with water; (2) it stops (for final diapause) in an earlier embryonic stage; (3) it affects maintenance and termination of the initial embryonic diapause.In many Tettigoniidae species, the initial diapause is prolonged, and may last several years. Without draught stress, between 1 and 7 cold treatments in the laboratory, and with eggs of the Tettigonia-species between 1 and 6 winters in the field were necessary to enable all eggs to complete initial diapause. In Central European species, the number of eggs maintaining initial diapause significantly increased when the eggs had no contact with water at the time when they should recover from diapause. In contrast, termination of initial diapause in Tettigonia caudata from Greece, when the environment became favorable for growth again, was highest in that group of eggs that had lost most water in a preceding period of drought. The importance of the prolonged initial diapause for the survival of unpredictable adverse conditions is discussed.     

Lethal and sublethal effects of abamectin, spinosad, methoxyfenozide and acetamiprid on the predaceous plant bug Deraeocoris brevis in the laboratory

Deraeocoris brevis (Uhler) (Hemiptera: Miridae), an important generalist predator in pome fruits in the western United States, was reared in the laboratory on frozen Ephestia kuehniella (Zeller) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) eggs and treated in a Potter spray tower to assess acute toxicity and chronic sublethal effects of abamectin, spinosad, methoxyfenozide, and acetamiprid. Acute toxicity was assessed using topical application. Sublethal effects were examined as the combined result of topical, residual and oral exposure. Two different dose rates, the full field rate and 10% rate of the full field rate, were compared to distilled water as the untreated check. Methoxyfenozide and spinosad had no acute toxicity to nymphs and adults at the 10% and full field rate, and no effect on egg hatch and nymph survival just after hatch. Acetamiprid and abamectin at the full field rate did not affect egg hatch, but the residue had moderate to high toxicity to hatched nymphs. Also, topically applied acetamiprid and abamectin had moderate to high acute toxicity to nymphs and adults at the full field rate, but moderate toxicity at the 10% rate. In sublethal bioassays, abamectin-treated adults (10% field rate) laid 80% fewer and less viable eggs compared with the untreated check. Spinosad-treated (full field rate) adults laid fewer and less viable eggs. Also, egg hatch in the subsequent generation was lower. Methoxyfenozide had no sublethal effects on adults at the full rate, but slowed development of 4th instars following treatment of 2nd instar nymphs, and lowered fecundity by 30% in the subsequent generation compared with the untreated check. Acetamiprid (10% rate) applied to nymphs or adults had no effects on development or reproduction. Results from this study suggest that the newer reduced risk insecticides, which have begun to replace organophosphate insecticides in pome fruits in the United States, are not as selective to natural enemies as initially thought. Their impact on D. brevis varied with chemistry and mode of action from primarily acute toxicity (i.e., acetamiprid) to reproductive and other sublethal effects (i.e., methoxyfenozide, spinosad) or a combination of both (i.e., abamectin). In addition to acute toxicity, sublethal effects need to be quantified in order to accurately predict the total impact of a pesticide on a natural enemy in the field.     

枣麦间作枣园主要蚧虫复合种群结构及生态位

为了有效地控制枣树蚧害,2002年在太谷地区对枣麦间作枣园的康氏粉蚧(Pseudococcus comstock Kuwane)、日本蜡蚧(Ceroplastes japonicus Green)和梨园蚧(Quadraspidiotus perniciosus Comstock)的复合种群结构及其生态位进行了系统研究.结果表明,在枣树发育早期,3种蚧虫分布范围主要在下、中部的东、南方位,康氏粉蚧的时空二维生态位的宽度较大,是该时期的优势种.到中期3种蚧虫复合种群的分布聚集在树冠上部的西、北方位,时 空二维生态位的宽度以日本蜡蚧较大,种间相似程度和竞争不明显.后期3种蚧虫的复合种群结构在各部位的各个方位的分布无明显差异,但梨园蚧的虫口密度较大,日本蜡蚧在生态位上占据较大的空间.与枣树发育的中期相比,3种蚧虫复合种群结构的相似性与种间竞争系数的平均值要小.蚧害预防应早期控制康氏粉蚧,中期调治3种蚧虫的危害,后期应采取措施压低越冬虫源.     

Do human menstrual-cycle pheromones exist?

Research over the past 15 years indicates, contrary to earlier results, that women do not synchronize their menstrual cycles. If women do not synchronize their cycles, this implies there is no mechanism for synchronizing cycles. Since a pheromone mechanism of synchronization is the only plausible mechanism that has been proposed, it follows that that there are no pheromones that modulate the length of menstrual cycles. To test this hypothesis, eight studies were reviewed that reported pheromone effects on menstrual cycles, other behavior, or physiological correlates in women. The prediction was that serious problems would be found in each of these studies. As predicted, serious problems were found in all eight studies. Taken together, these results cast doubt on the existence of pheromones that modulate the length of menstrual cycles. Jeff Schank is associate professor of psychology at the University of California, Davis. His main research interests are in computational and biorobotic modeling of group behavior and the development of sensorimotor behavior in animals.     

桔梗雄性不育种质JXB-1的发现与鉴定

2006年在龙井市当地采集的3年生野生桔梗种源圃中发现雄性不育种质JXB-1个体,本研究对其生殖发育进行了进一步的实验验证。结果表明：JXB-1个体花的外观与正常的花比较无明显差异,但花药皱瘪;花药开裂,但无花粉粒散出,强行挤出来的花粉粒多数呈不规则型且无活力;套袋自交座果率为零,与30份不同桔梗种源杂交座果率为100%;经花药发育及小孢子发生过程观察,初步认为JXB-1花粉的败育主要发生在小孢子发育时期,JXB-1的绒毡层细胞过早解体,因而小孢子发育中途停止是败育的主要原因。用组织培养方法进行无性繁殖的JXB-1后代全部表现为雄性不育。初步研究结果表明JXB-1确属雄性不育,与其他种源有高度亲和力,可作为优良的育种材料。     

Evaluation of transgenic cotton varieties and a glyphosate application on seedling disease incidence

A study was conducted to determine whether stand densities of transgenic cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) varieties, with or without glyphosate, were similar to conventional varieties of the same lineage group in Georgia and Mississippi. Transgenic and conventional cotton varieties were placed into five lineage groups of related varieties and seedling disease was evaluated in three greenhouse tests and a field trial using Rhizoctonia solani AG-4. Seed vigor was determined by standard germination studies were conducted evaluating conventional and transgenic varieties of similar lineage. Results showed that no interactions occurred for the heights and dry weight data across treatments within the lineage groups in any of the experiments. No interactions were shown between stand densities at different inoculum rates and inoculated versus uninoculated pots (plots). Across all greenhouse studies, stand counts of PM 1220 were similar to the transgenic varieties PM 1220 RR and PM 1220 B/RR with or without a glyphosate application. In the field trial, PM 1220 B/RR + glyphosate had significantly lower stands than all other treatments expect PM 1220 RR (no glyphosate treatment) prior to and after glyphosate application. Stand densities for varieties within the lineage group DPL 5415 were also inconsistent when compared between the greenhouse and field trials with no apparent trends occurring. However, the Coker 312 varieties containing glyphosate tolerance had consistently lower stand counts compared to the conventional variety of Coker 312 but only during the greenhouse studies. Seed germination of Coker 312 could not be correlated with either the greenhouse or field trial data. In general, the commercially available varieties such as PM 1220, DPL 5690, DPL 5415, and DPL 50 with glyphosate tolerance had similar stand count, height, and dry weight data when compared to the conventional varieties from the same lineage group regardless of a glyphosate application. When differences did occur, no consistent trends could be determined within these four lineage groups. An erratum to this article is available at .     

Resistance of the German cockroach (Blattella germanica) to bendiocarb

Two field strains of the German cockroach Blattella germanica (L.) were collected in England from survivors of treatments with bendiocarb wettable powder, and bred in the laboratory. These and a laboratory susceptible strain were compared by a tarsal contact method to test for resistance to bendiocarb, fenitrothion and dieldrin. The field strains after exposure to the insecticide for 24 h were resistant to bendiocarb in terms of mortality by factors of 5.6 and 6.2 at the LC₅₀ level, but at the LC₉₅ level the resistance factors were only 1.7 and 2.0; however knockdown resistance was detected, with resistance factors at the KD₅₀ level of 10.6 and 8.1. At shorter exposure times of 5 min and 60 min, 2–20% of cockroaches from the field strains survived 55 or 110 mg bendiocarb/m²; there were no survivors from the susceptible strain. Some cockroaches from the field strains were able to recover from knockdown after and during exposure to 110 mg bendiocarb/m². Both field strains showed some resistance to dieldrin; however, there was no resistance to fenitrothion. When all three strains were exposed to 55 mg fenitrothion/m² for 5 min, all the insects were knocked down within 3 h, and all had died within 96 h. There was no recovery from knockdown to fenitrothion or dieldrin.