The Role of Cooperation in the Development of Intelligence

In the theoretical analysis of the general structure of activity as presented in the fundamental work of L. S. Vygotsky and A. N. Leont'ev, cooperation among the participants in a joint activity is viewed as the source of new mental functions. Under conditions of cooperation, an activity that is initially shared by those participating in it emerges as an original and fundamental foundation for the development of forms of individual activity. Thus, L. S. Vygotsky wrote, "Any function in the cultural development of the child appears twice, on two levels: first as a social function, and then as a psychological function, first as something taking place between people, a category based on relationship between minds, an intermental category; later, this psychological function occurs within the child, as an intramental category" [2. Pp. 197-98].     

Significance of Games Involving a Plot and Role-Playing for the Development of Moral Behavior

Games involving a plot and role-playing are the dominant activity of preschool-age children; they "are responsible for fundamental changes in mental processes and in the psychological characteristics of the child's personality" (Leont'ev, 1959. P. 412). As has been demonstrated by L. S. Vygotsky (1966), D. B. El'konin (1978), A. V. Zaporozhets (1965), and others, in play children assimilate information and skills to the extent that social situations and typical relationships are modeled in their play. In the view of these authors, however, the most essential point is that games involving a plot and role-playing have a general developmental effect. In a number of studies by Zaporozhets (1948), Z. M. Istomina (1948), Z. V. Manuilenko (1948), T. V. Endovitskaya (1948), and others, the importance of play for the development of voluntary memory, voluntary maintenance of a pose, sensory processes, etc., has been demonstrated empirically.     

Personal Meaning and the Transformation of a Mental Image

It is generally accepted that the reflection of reality in human consciousness is by no means an exact photographic reproduction of reality. "An image is the reflection of an object, and an object is reflected in an image in just the same guise as it exists in the real life relation between it and the subject" (Rubinshtein, 1957. P. 230). Thus, an element of personal, subjective partiality, the reflection of not only phenomena or objective relations themselves but also of their meaning for the person and their relation to his needs (Rubinshtein, 1959. P. 124; Leont'ev, 1977; Vilyunas, 1983; etc.), is necessarily present in a mental image. Personal meaning is also a component of individual consciousness; in it the partiality of that consciousness finds expression, a partiality conditioned by the link between that consciousness and the subject's need and motivational sphere and the reality of his life in the world (Leont'ev, 1977. Pp. 152-53). The objects and phenomena of reality are presented to us in direct perception and in our imagination in a form that is "colored" by the personal meaning they have for us as a result of their objective place in our life activity and their relation to the realization of our needs. It is not always possible to differentiate between objective content and personal relation even in reflection. Often, the meaning of an object cannot be separated from the object itself and examined impartially, from the sidelines, so to speak. This is most patently in evidence in the example of one's perception of other people, especially those who are very familiar.     

A Study of Human Information Processing in a Choice Situation

Report I. Influence of the Significance of an Individual Signal upon the Relation of Choice Time to the Amount of Information in this Signal. (Submitted by A. N. Leont'ev, Member, RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences)     

Problems in the Integrated Study of Individual Differences

The properties of all the stages of evolution of matter, from the chemical to the sociohistorical, are part of man as well. In each of these properties, in addition to what is common and typical for groups of people, there is something that is unique to the individual and irreproducible. One characteristic noted in theoretical conceptions of individual differences is that they tend to study properties relating to different stages in the development of matter in isolation from one another. In most studies of differential psychophysiology, the biochemical and endocrine properties of the organism and the bioelectric properties of the nervous system are examined as if they had nothing to do with individual characteristics in the formation of classical Pavlovian conditioned reflexes. The psychological properties of the personality are examined in the Vygotsky and Leont'ev school independently of their relationship to somatic, neurophysiological, and psychodynamic properties (the properties of temperament).     

"The Key to Human Psychology"

This article investigates the notebook kept by Lev Vygotsky during the first half of 1926. In addition to discussing the notebook's structure, content, and time frame, the article analyzes its significance within the context of the development of Vygotsky's ideas. Among the notebook's content discussed here are: supplementary material to The Psychology of Art; a preliminary outline for "The Historical Meaning of the Crisis in Psychology"; the first propositions of cultural-historical theory associated with the idea of sign mediation; an outline for the unwritten monograph "Zoon politikon"; as well as thoughts on a general psychological theory of consciousness that assigns a key role to speech and communication in the genesis of consciousness. Particular attention is paid to Vygotsky's remarks on the ontological status of mental reality and the problem of the psychophysical.     

Editor's Note

The articles contained in this issue of Soviet Psychology represent a sample from a new publication, Psychological Studies, which appeared for the first time in 1969. This publication, under the editorial directorship of A. N. Leont'ev, A. R. Luriya, E. N. Sokolov, and E. D. Khomskaya, is intended to reflect the work currently of concern among the psychologists at Moscow University. The work of younger members of the faculty, graduate students, and undergraduates is given special prominence in this first number of the publication.     

The Principle of Creative Self-activity (Philosophical Foundations of Modern Pedagogy)

Note from the editors of Voprosy psikhologii: the Editorial Board thought it would be useful to publish the two articles below, by S. L. Rubinshtein (1889-1960) and A. N. Leont'ev (1903-1979),* which describe the first stages in the development of the problem of activity in Soviet psychology. This subject remains most timely. For proper comprehension and further development of this subject, its roots and its history must be known. Some idea of these may be gleaned from these two publications. Rubinshtein's article, which presents one of the first approaches to the problem of activity in Soviet science, was written by the author in the first period of his creative scientific career. It is short, but complex. To understand it correctly, the reader must be prepared to give it an attentive and critical reading.     

The Concept of Dispositional Regulation of Individual Social Behavior

After a period of relative neglect by psychologists of issues of social motivation and goal-directed behavior (in favor of attending to the person as a "cognizer," or reinforcement-shaped "responder"), it is clear that the preoccupations of Miller, Galanter, & Pribram (1960) a quarter-century ago have been taken up with renewed interest. Current investigators are of many different persuasions—e.g., cognitively oriented theorists concerned with "lay epistemology" (Kruglanski & Klar, 1986), "personologists" interested in person-environment interactions (Little, 1983), psychologists attempting to clarify the structure and components of action (e.g., Brenner, 1980), etc. Readers familiar with the work of Leont'ev (1975) and the translations and discussions of related work (Wertsch, 1979) will know that a concern with goal direction has never been absent from psychology in the USSR.     

In Honor of the President of the Congress: A. N. Leont'Yev-Lenin Prize Laureate

The editorial staff of the journal Voprosy psikhologii and the Soviet psychological community heartily congratulate Aleksey Nikolayevich Leont'yev on receiving the highest scientific award — the Lenin Prize — for his book Problemy razvitiya psikhiki [Problems of mental development].     

SENSORY EVALUATION METHODS FOR TACTILE PROPERTIES OF FABRICS

Sensory evaluation of tactile properties of fabrics is a subject many researchers have studied for years and which still has importance and is also open to improvements. Particularly for suitings, the sensory evaluation of fabric handle or of other tactile properties has a greater importance. This article explains sensory evaluation techniques for stiffness, thickness and smoothness, which are the components of fabric handle of suitings. These sensory techniques are introduced by the authors and studied in 100% worsted wool suitings. The concordances of sensory test results are investigated by Kendall's concordance test, and correlation analyses are carried out to examine the relations between sensory results.     

Elemental composition and flavonol content of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pentaphylloides fruticosa</Emphasis> (L.) O. Schwarz in connection with plant age

The elemental composition and flavonol content of Pentaphylloides fruticosa (L.) O. Schwartz under the conditions of the Altai mountains are investigated. Some differences in the concentrations of elements and flavonols were detected in the leaves of P. fruticosa plants of different age classes corresponding to two periods of development: pregenerative (immature and virginal plants) and generative (young, middle-aged and old generative individuals). The maximum content of flavonols, in particular quercetin, in the leaves of P. fruticosa corresponds to the young generative age. A very high correlation between the flavonol content and the concentrations of Mn, Zn, Mo, and Se was revealed.     

An integrative approach in the assessment of species delimitation and structure of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Merodon nanus</Emphasis> species group (Diptera: Syrphidae)

The Merodon nanus group (Diptera, Syrphidae) is a small group of closely related species with high morphological similarity. Until now, based on morphological characters, this group consisted of five species: M. nanus Sack, 1931; M. telmateia Hurkmans, 1987; M. kopensis Vuji? et Hayat, 2015; M. neonanus Vuji? et Taylor, 2015; and M. rasicus Vuji? et Radenkovi?, 2015. Here, using an integrative approach based on molecular characters (sequences of the D2–3 region of the nuclear 28S rRNA gene and the mitochondrial COI gene) and data obtained from geometric morphometry of wing shape, we distinguish all five previously morphologically defined species of the group. Additionally, we identify one species as being new to science, M. vladimiri Vuji? et Ko?i? Tubi? sp. n. We emphasize the separation of this newly described species according to the sequences obtained from the slowly evolving 28S rRNA gene, which demonstrated four to five mutation positions between this species and morphologically the most similar M. neonanus species. Also, our results show a clear division of M. telmateia into at least three population groups that we designate as the subspecies: M. telmateia mediterraneus A?anski et Ko?i? Tubi? subsp. n. and M. telmateia samosensis A?anski et Ko?i? Tubi? subsp. n. exhibiting western distributions (western Anatolia and the Greek island of Samos, respectively) and the nominative subspecies M. telmateia telmateia with an eastern Anatolian distribution.     

Reflective-Personal Regulation of Normal and Pathological Goal Formation

Leading Soviet psychologists have repeatedly stressed the importance of study of disorders in mental processes for a general psychological analysis of those processes. One of the theoretical underpinnings of contemporary studies in psychopathology is the postulate that there is a fundamental unity between the mechanisms of activity in a normal state and in a pathological state. This postulate was developed specifically by B. V. Zeigarnik and her followers (Zeigarnik, 1962, 1971). Goal formation is a central aspect of the movement of a subject's activity (Leont'ev, 1975). A study of the mechanisms of goal formation under pathological conditions, when their functioning is disrupted by the influence of the specific conditions of a mental illness, should help us better understand the role of these mechanisms in the activity of a healthy person as well.     

2. Personality Factors in Perception

2. Personality Factors in Perception The role of personality factors is no less significant in the process of perception. From the theoretical positions of L. S. Vygotsky, A. R. Luria, and A. V. Zaporozhets it follows that the development of perception is determined by new tasks that arise during ontogenesis. Perception advances as perceptual actions develop that manifest the subject's activity (B. C. Anan'yev, 1960; Yu. B. Gippenreiter, 1958; J. Piaget, 1961; L. A. Venger, 1969; A. V. Zaporozhets, 1960; V. P. Zinchenko, 1967). The cited works show how perceptual actions develop and examine their role in constructing an image. They enumerate the developmental stages of perceptual actions and their orienting and regulating functions. The skill and operations that constitute perceptual actions, the child's perceptual development, and the methods for studying the level of perceptual development have all been researched by L. A. Venger (1969).* All of these works characteristically approach perception as an activity that includes a basic feature of the human mind, namely, its selectivity (A. N. Leont'yev).     

Mycobacterium sp. mutant strain producing 9α-hydroxyandrostenedione from sitosterol

Mycobacterium sp. VKM Ac-1815D and its derivatives with altered resistance to antibacterial agents were able to produce androst-4-ene-3,17-dione (AD) as a major product from sitosterol. In this study, those strains were subjected to subsequent mutagenization by chemical agents and UV irradiation in combination with sitosterol selection pressure. The mutant Mycobacterium sp. 2-4 M was selected, being capable of producing 9-hydroxyandrost-4-ene-3,17-dione (9-OH-AD) as a major product from sitosterol, with a 50% molar yield. Along with 9-OH-AD, both AD and 9-hydroxylated metabolites with a partially degraded side-chain were formed from sitosterol by the mutant strain. The strain was unable to degrade 9-OH-AD, but degraded androsta-1,4-diene-3,17-dione (ADD), thus indicating a deficiency in steroid 1(2)-dehydrogenase and the presence of 9-hydroxylase activity.     

Effects of lanthanum in cellular systems

Lanthanum belongs to the group of elements known as “lanthanons,” which also includes cerium, europium, promethium, and thulium. It is the most electropositive element of the rare earth group, is uniformly trivalent, and is similar in its chemical properties to the alkaline earth elements. The effects of this element and its compounds on cellular systems are of considerable interest because of their increasing use in industry and as a substitute or antagonist for calcium in a variety of cellular reactions. Lanthanum is also being employed extensively in studying anatomical barriers, membrane structure, and subcellular transport systems, particularly the calcium pathway.     

Three Facets of Meaning

Vygotsky and Luria's "cultural-historical theory of psychology" is little known to broad circles of the Soviet public. Nor is this theory yet very familiar in the world of pedagogy, since the leaders in this area of psychology do not yet have a completed system of views. The "cultural-historical theory of psychology" is just in the process of being formed, but even so has managed to do much damage to psychology's theoretical front, deftly concealing its pseudoscientific aspects alien to Marxism with quotations from the works of the founders of Marxism. This theory is being aggressively introduced into pedagogical practice in higher education; its authors are forcefully publicizing it in the pages of journals and books, textbooks, and encyclopedias; and it makes claims to being the closest to Marxism of all the psychological currents existing in the USSR.     

Historicising the Cosmogony: Naming the Asala Perahara in Buddhist Sri Lanka

This article offers a novel interpretation of Sri Lanka's great ceremonial procession for the Buddha, the Asala Perahara. By conceptualizing the name, ‘Asala’ as a chronotope (Bakhtin 1981), and giving emphasis to its authorisation by Buddhist monks, the interpretation reveals that this ritual commemorates the origins of Buddhism in relation to the island of Sri Lanka, thus constituting it as a unique ‘quality space’ (Fernandez 1986) for its Buddhist inhabitants. The interpretation demonstrates that the distinction between mythic time and everyday time, as espoused by Lévi-Strauss (1972) is not only arbitrary, but spurious in this context. Furthermore, contra Seneviratne (1978), it shows that far from being an anachronism in contemporary society, the Asala Perahara in fact enacts its cosmic premise and is politically powerful precisely because it defines reality in religious terms.     

On the Phenomenon of “Perezhivanie”

The author presents a short historical review of the concept of “perezhivanie” beginning with L.S. Vygotsky. She compares this concept with reflection as two central concepts revealing a person's consciousness. A systemic picture of these two phenomena is elaborated by introducing a hierarchy of reflection. A further step is made that relates the “perezhivanie—reflection” system to (psychoanalytic) self-formations. Empirical studies shed light on phenomena connected to “perezhivanie.”