Book Review

ABSTRACT

Previous studies conducted in the United States and Venezuela have demonstrated that people can correctly match portraits of unknown purebred dogs with their owners at statistically significant levels, suggesting that the popular belief in dog–owner physical resemblance is empirically valid. We investigated the perceived physical resemblance of dog–owner pairs in Japan, where the owners are racially more homogenous than in the countries in which the previous studies were conducted. In experiment 1, the matching performance by naïve judges was statistically significant, and a supplementary test suggested that perceived dog–owner physical resemblance plays a critical role in this. Experiment 2 presented a new procedure to test the perceived dog–owner physical resemblance and demonstrated that two-thirds of the judges selected a set of 20 real dog–owner pairs over a set of 20 fake dog–owner pairs, irrespective of whether it was an ownership-guessing task or a resemblance-based choice task. The ability to match correct dog–owner pairs (experiment 1) and the sensitivity to differentiate between real and fake dog–owner pairs (experiment 2) were not unique to the characteristics of the judges (e.g., whether or not they were dog lovers) because the task performance was independent of any measured judge-related factor. These results, taken together, provide another piece of positive evidence for the popular belief that there is a physical resemblance between dogs and their owners. Furthermore, the demonstration of dog–owner physical resemblance with racially homogeneous owner samples supports the generality and robustness of this phenomenon. The mechanism underlying this phenomenon (i.e., owners' selection of dogs that look like themselves or the convergence of appearance over time), however, remains to be elucidated by future studies.     

The Relationship between Empathy,Perception of Pain and Attitudes toward Pets among Norwegian Dog Owners

ABSTRACT

Anthropomorphism, attachment level, and belief in animal mind, as well as owners' level of empathy and attitudes toward their pets, are some of the factors that affect human–animal interactions. Owners' ability to identify painful conditions in their pets may have important consequences for the welfare of these animals. In addition to characterizing the typical Norwegian dog owner, the aim of this work was to study the relationship between empathy, attitudes, and perceived animal pain. A sample of 3,413 dog owners in Norway received an internet-based questionnaire (QuestBack?), to which1896 responded. The questionnaire included four parts: demographics, the Pet Attitude Scale (PAS), the Animal Empathy Scale (AES), and the Pain Assessment Instrument (PAI). For the PAI, participants were presented with 17 photos, showing dogs experiencing painful situations of varying degrees, and were asked to rate the level of pain they believed each animal was enduring, using a Visual Analogue Scale (VAS). Results showed that Norwegian dog owners had very high levels of animal-directed empathy and equally high levels of positive attitudes toward pets. There were differences based on gender, childhood pet keeping, income and education. Differences were also found rooted in owners' use of their dog, whether kept for companionship or hunting, as well as household size, an indication of human social relations. A strong, positive correlation (r = 0.58) was found between animal-directed empathy and positive attitudes toward pets. Empathy was found to be the best predictor of how people rated pain in dogs. The correlations were, however, moderate, indicating that other processes are also involved when observing animals in pain.     

Self-Reported Comprehension Ratings of Dog Behavior by Puppy Owners

ABSTRACT

Dogs show a range of behaviors that reflect their emotional state. It is important that dog owners recognize these behaviors to accurately assess their dog's emotional state. We examined dog owners' self-reported comprehension (SRC) of their dog's emotional state. Eighty-nine participants attending puppy socialization classes at local veterinary clinics in the Melbourne Metropolitan area, Victoria, Australia, rated their comprehension of their dog's emotional states (Happy, Sad, Anxious, Angry, Friendly Greeting, and Anxious Greeting) and listed the behaviors they used to judge the emotional state of their dog. In most cases (Anxious Greeting being the only exception), the owners' perceived comprehension of their dog's emotional state was not closely related to the number of behaviors they reported. The reported behaviors were mostly restricted to vocalizations and gross body movements. There was also no relationship between SRC and dog morphology. There were relationships between SRC and the age and gender of the participant, and previous puppy ownership. It was concluded that most dog owners report having a good understanding of the emotional state of their dogs, when they seem to have low appreciation of the signals that dogs send in the earlier stages of emotional arousal. An approach to lowering dog owners' perception of their comprehension of dog behavior, which may increase their willingness to seek education on dog behavior, and increase the efficacy of the education, is suggested.     

Book Reviews

Abstract

A study of the attitudes and actions of 281 dog owners towards neutering their animals is reported from New Providence, The Bahamas. Owner attitudes towards neutering are associated with different sterilization rates of dogs. While owners' gender is associated with differences in attitudes, these differences are not necessarily associated with owner behavior with respect to neutering their animals. Men, more than women, want to have animals for long-term breeding. No evidence is found to support the belief that men are less likely to neuter their dogs than women, but younger owners are less likely than older owners to neuter their dogs. A comparison with a study from Australia suggests that Bahamians are more likely to project human traits on to their animals and so appear more reluctant to have their dogs neutered.     

The Relationship between Personality Match and Pet Satisfaction among Dog Owners

ABSTRACT

We investigated the extent to which personality match between dog and owner is related to pet satisfaction. Prior research shows that owners relinquish dogs at a high rate, not only in the United States, but also in other countries. New procedures to match owners to future pets could reduce the problem of homeless pets. These were developed after examining the literature to determine all possible traits in dogs and conducting structured interviews to check for further traits. After doing this, 45 traits were determined, and two surveys were created. One survey assessed the personality traits of the dog, and the other assessed the owner's personality traits. In our study, 88 dog owners were asked to report their satisfaction with their self-selected dog and to describe their dog's personality characteristics, based on eight dimensions. Correlations between dog satisfaction scores and dog–owner personality match revealed four characteristics that were significantly associated with satisfaction: tendency to share possessions, love of running outside, likeliness of being destructive, and ability to get along with others. These results suggest that prospective dog owners may want to consider adopting dogs who match their personality on these characteristics. Matching the personality of dogs and their owners on a few characteristics may predict owner satisfaction. This is important as it may reduce the number of dogs that are relinquished by owners as well as the number of dogs left homeless each year.     

Dog Obesity: Can Dog Caregivers' (Owners') Feeding and Exercise Intentions and Behaviors Be Predicted From Attitudes?

Dog obesity is a common nutritional disorder affecting up to 40% of the companion animal (pet) dog population in Australia and other developed nations. A clear understanding of factors determining relevant caregiver (owner) behaviors underpins effective treatment for this disorder. The theory of planned behavior can be used to understand factors contributing to human behavior. This article describes research informed by this theory. The research examined relationships between owners' behavioral beliefs and barriers, normative beliefs and perceptions of control, owners' feeding and exercise behaviors toward their dogs, and the body condition scores (BCSs) of dogs. The study recruited a sample of 182 dog and owner dyads. The researcher independently assessed BCSs. Owners completed a questionnaire measuring relevant feeding and exercise beliefs and behaviors. This revealed significant correlations between many psychological variables and BCSs and between psychological variables and specific owner behaviors: for example, the relationship of low levels of intentions to feed appropriately to ambivalent beliefs toward feeding appropriately and low perceived control. Careful consideration of the specific variables identified will permit the development of more effective interventions.     

Elephant

ABSTRACT

The aim of this exploratory study was to determine heart rate and the levels of oxytocin, cortisol, and insulin in dogs and their owners in response to a short-term interaction. In addition, the dogs' behavior was studied. The owners' responses were compared with those obtained from a control group. Ten female volunteers and their own male Labrador dogs participated in an experiment during which the owner stroked, petted, and talked with her dog during the first 3 minutes. Blood samples were collected from both dog and owner before (0) and at 1, 3, 5, 15, 30, and 60 minutes after the start of the interaction. Blood samples were analyzed by EIA. Heart rate was monitored telemetrically. The data were analyzed using linear mixed models and paired t-tests. The dogs' oxytocin levels were significantly increased 3 minutes after the start of the interaction (p = 0.027). Cortisol levels were significantly increased after 15 and 30 minutes (p = 0.004 and p = 0.022, respectively), and heart rate was significantly decreased after 55 minutes (p = 0.008). The dogs displayed normal behaviors during the experiment. The owners' oxytocin levels peaked between 1 and 5 minutes after interaction (p = 0.026). No such effect was seen in the controls. Cortisol levels displayed a significant decrease at 15 or 30 minutes in both owners and controls, and insulin levels did so at 60 minutes (p = 0.030, p = 0.002 and p = 0.002, p < 0.0001, respectively). Heart rate decreased significantly in the owners at 55 and 60 minutes (p = 0.0008) but not in the controls. In conclusion, short-term sensory interaction between dogs and their owners influences hormonal levels and heart rate. However, further studies need to be performed in order to better understand the effects of interaction between dogs and their owners.     

The Responsible Dog Owner: The Construction of Responsibility

ABSTRACT

Policy and campaigning messages related to dog ownership and welfare center on the concept of responsible ownership. However, the perspectives and experiences of pet owners and how they perceive and perform their responsibilities has not been studied in depth. This qualitative study used conversations about owning and walking dogs in order to elucidate beliefs and views about responsibility in dog ownership. Data comprised 12 in-depth interviews with dog-owning households, 14 short interviews with dog owners while walking their dogs or representing their breed at a dog show, and autoethnography of the first author’s experiences owning and walking dogs. All participants considered themselves responsible dog owners, yet there was great variation in key aspects of their dog-owning behavior. The feelings of responsibility were rooted in the valued unconditional and reciprocal love that owners believed underpinned their human–dog bond. Dogs were described as dependents, similar to, but different from, children. In deciding how to look after their dogs, owners sought to balance their views of dogs as kin, having individual needs to be met, with consideration of the needs of others. Four processes through which issues of irresponsible dog ownership may arise were suggested: owner–dog relationship being too weak or too strong; differences in interpretation of what is best for the dog; difficulties predicting and avoiding situations of conflict; and differences in tolerance of negative impacts of dog ownership. While “responsible dog ownership” has considerable appeal as a concept, how it is perceived and interpreted varies so extensively that simply telling owners that they should “be responsible” is of limited use as a message to promote behavior change. Facilitating “responsible dog ownership” and reducing “irresponsible dog owner” behaviors relies on a detailed understanding of the variables which influence how the dog’s role is constructed within the family and the wider society.     

The Canine Cuteness Effect: Owner-Perceived Cuteness as a Predictor of Human–Dog Relationship Quality

ABSTRACT

The modern domestic dog's primary function is as a human companion. A strong human–dog relationship may be beneficial to both parties but not all relationships are successful. There is currently no consensus on why some dog–owner relationships flourish and others fail, but relationship quality may be partly influenced by canine characteristics. The extent to which canine cuteness and canine personality factors predict human–dog relationship quality was examined. In study 1, 668 dog owners completed two relationship-quality surveys, rated their dog's personality and physical cuteness, and were invited to submit a photograph of their dog. Personality measures and cuteness ratings predicted each measure of relationship quality, with cuteness being the strongest unique predictor in three of seven standard multiple regression models (all p<0.001). In study 2, 873 independent participants were presented with one of 42 images selected from those provided in study 1. Participants rated the dog's cuteness and its likely personality attributes. Strangers (M=6.69, SD=0.83) typically rated each dog as being less cute than did the owner (M=8.93, SD=1.80; t(41₎=7.39, p<0.001, two tailed), and how cute they perceived the dog to be influenced their ratings of some aspects of its likely personality. Measures of relationship quality provided by owners were not significantly associated with stranger cuteness ratings or with the degree of difference between owner and stranger cuteness ratings. These results suggest a bi-directional relationship between perceived cuteness and other attributes: cute dogs are perceived to have more desirable personality traits, but having a strong relationship with a dog may also inflate its perceived cuteness. These findings have implications for those involved in dog breeding, selection, and training, as well as shelter management.     

Beliefs Underlying Dog Owners' Health Care Behaviors: Results from a Large,Self-Selected,Internet Sample

ABSTRACT

Various behaviors must be performed by owners to promote good health for their dogs. The aim in this study was to use the results of an online survey, completed by 1,016 self-selected, Australian dog owners, to investigate relationships between demographic factors, beliefs, dog–owner relationship variables, and the performance of health-promoting behaviors. Specific behaviors examined included the provision of annual vaccinations and health checkups by a veterinarian, regular grooming and exercise, and the provision of a nutritionally balanced diet. Reported compliance was high in the self-selected sample, ranging between 77.8% for annual vaccinations and 98.8% for the provision of a nutritious diet. Regression analyses revealed that all of the behaviors we measured could be predicted from beliefs relating to health care practices and dog–owner relationship variables independently of demographic factors. The extent of dog and owner interactions, as well as the extent to which owners perceived important others to be supportive of the behaviors, emerged as particularly important variables. These statistically robust findings have implications for campaigns encouraging pet health promotion by owners.     

Self-disclosure with Dogs: Dog Owners’ and Non-dog Owners’ Willingness to Disclose Emotional Topics

Many owners talk to their pets about a wide range of issues, but there is very little research that has considered the content of this, or its impact on owner wellbeing. Verbal disclosure brings a range of potential health benefits, yet a number of factors may prevent individuals from confiding in their partners or friends (confidants). As such, in some circumstances, dogs may provide a more favorable alternative focus for disclosure. In a survey, we assessed dog owners’ (n = 286) and non-dog owners’ (n = 64) self-reported willingness to talk to their dog (dog owners only), their partner and their confidant. We used the Emotional Self Disclosure Scale (ESDS) for non-dog owners, and an adapted version of this for dog owners: Emotional Self Disclosure Scale–Dog Owners (ESDS-DO). Both dog owners and non-dog owners demonstrated a greater willingness to disclose to their partner than a confidant. For dog owners, their dog appeared to play a similar role as their partner, with greater willingness to talk to their dog about depression, jealousy, anxiety, calmness, apathy, and fear-related emotions, compared with a confidant. When talking about jealousy and apathy, dog owners reported greater willingness to talk to their dog than their partner or a confidant, but between-group comparisons (dog owner vs non-dog owner) revealed that dog owners and non-dog owners did not significantly differ in their willingness to talk to their partner or confidant, suggesting human relationships were not negatively affected by confiding to the dog. Participant age and length of relationship with their partner did not affect disclosure patterns for dog owners or non-dog owners. Males and females showed different willingness to disclose to confidants, but not to dogs. The results have implications for considering the value of dogs for human psychological health.     

Two Sides of the City: Dog-keeping Practices in Russian Urban Areas

This article examines dog–owner relations and dog ownership in Omsk, Russia. We describe typical dog-keeping practices and reveal how diverse urban environments can influence these practices. A two-stage survey was conducted in 2014 to determine the numbers and management of dogs owned. In total, some 1,583 households at the first stage of the research and 323 households at the second stage were interviewed face-to-face. About 23% of all households in Omsk owned dogs, but this proportion varied markedly for different parts of the city. In the city's single-story area, 71.5% of households had dogs, while in the multi-story area this was only 10.8%. Dog-keeping practices were different in these areas. Significant differences in these practices were shown for almost all aspects: the selection criteria, dog feeding, veterinary treatment, dog walking, the roles of dogs, and owners’ attitudes toward them. Owners living in the single-story area demonstrated a utilitarian or functional approach to their dogs—influencing the sex, size, and the breed of the animal. Dogs often lived outside the house; they were vaccinated and taken to the veterinarian less often than dogs from the multi-story area. The owners in the multi-story area described more affectionate feelings toward their dogs. This is reflected in both the choice and treatment of the animals. We observed a larger proportion of pedigree dogs, a larger proportion of female animals, more vaccinations, and the owners making a variety of purchases for their dogs.     

Validation of a Health-related Quality of Life (QoL) Questionnaire for Owners of Dogs with Heart Disease

ABSTRACT

In humans, heart disease is associated with high caregiver burden and stress, which can negatively affect the health-related quality of life (hrQoL) of both patient and caregiver. The effect of a dog’s heart disease on owners’ hrQoL has not been reported. Therefore, the objective of this study was to develop and validate a hrQoL questionnaire for owners of dogs with heart disease, with the hypothesis that heart disease would impact the hrQoL of owners. Owners of dogs with degenerative mitral valve disease, dilated cardiomyopathy, and arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy were eligible for the study. A 7-item questionnaire was developed, with a possible range of scores from 0–35 (higher scores indicated worse owner hrQoL). The questionnaire was self-administered by owners and results were analyzed to determine validity, test-retest reliability, and internal consistency. The Functional EvaluaTion of Cardiac Health (FETCH) questionnaire was used to assess dogs’ hrQoL. Two hundred and seventeen owners of dogs with heart disease were enrolled. Median owner hrQoL score was 6 (range, 0–31) and median FETCH hrQoL score was 7 (range, 0–70). The owner hrQoL score was correlated with the FETCH score (r = 0.76, p < 0.001) and severity of dogs’ disease (r = 0.53, p < 0.001). Test-retest reliability was high (r = 0.83, p < 0.001). These results suggest that the owner hrQoL questionnaire has good reliability and validity, and that further testing of this questionnaire is warranted to optimize communication with owners regarding the care of dogs with heart disease.     

Dyadic relationships and operational performance of male and female owners and their male dogs

In the paper we investigate how owner personality, attitude and gender influence dog behavior, dyadic practical functionality and the level of dog salivary cortisol. In three meetings, 12 female and 10 male owners of male dogs answered questionnaires including the Neo-FFI human personality inventory. Their dyadic behavior was video-taped in a number of test situations, and saliva samples were collected. Owners who scored highly in neuroticism (Neo-FFI dimension one) viewed their dogs as social supporters and spent much time with them. Their dogs had low baseline cortisol levels, but such dyads were less successful in the operational task. Owners who scored highly in extroversion (Neo-FFI dimension two) appreciated shared activities with their dogs which had relatively high baseline cortisol values. Dogs that had female owners were less sociable-active (dog personality axis 1) than dogs that had male owners. Therefore, it appears that owner gender and personality influences dyadic interaction style, dog behavior and dyadic practical functionality.     

Pet's Presence and Owner's Blood Pressures during the Daily Lives of Pet Owners with Pre- to Mild Hypertension

ABSTRACT

As the population ages the number of older adults living with hypertension (HTN) is rising dramatically. Uncontrolled HTN increases cardiovascular and renal mortality. Ambulatory (A) blood pressure (BP) is a better predictor of HTN-related morbidity and mortality than office BP. Lower BP is the most important therapeutic goal in treating HTN. Any reduction in BP has significant benefits for older adults. The current study was designed to evaluate the impact of the presence of pet dogs and cats on ABP during the daily lives of independently living, older pet owners with pre- to mild HTN. A repeated measures observational study of ABP of 32 pet owners (21 dogs, 8 cats, 3 cat and dog; 29 women) aged 50–83 years with BP 120–150/80–100 mmHg or < 150/100 with anti-hypertensive medication was conducted. Owner's ABPs were recorded every 20 minutes for one day during waking hours at study entry, one month, and three months. Activity monitors and diaries were used to obtain information about activity, mood, and whether the pet and/or another person was present in the room (indoors) or in close proximity (outdoors) with the owner at each assessment. Generalized estimating equation (GEE) analyses for hierarchical data (unstructured correlations) were performed for systolic and diastolic ABP. Mean ABPs were significantly (systolic BP/diastolic BP: dog p = 0.008/ p = 0.002; cat p < 0.009/ p < 0.001) different (systolic BP/diastolic BP mmHg: dog 3.1/1.5; cat –3.0/2.2) when pets were present after controlling for participant's mood (p > 0.05/ p < 0.001), activity intensity (p = 0.026/ p = 0.441), location (p = 0.013/ p = 0.004), and the presence of other people (p = 0.947/ p = 0.723). The presence of a dog was associated with lower systolic and diastolic BP and of a cat was associated with lower diastolic BP and higher systolic BP during their owners' normal daily lives. This finding suggests that pets, especially dogs, may be effective as an adjunctive intervention to slow the development or progression of HTN in older adults. Comparison of ABPs of pet owners with non-owners during their daily lives is warranted and underway.     

Owner-companion dog interactions: Relationships between demographic variables,potentially problematic behaviours,training engagement and shared activities

Many companion dogs occupy a privileged position in our society, living closely with human caretakers who go to great lengths to provide for their needs and desires. Others fare less well, being abandoned or killed, many because they are believed to exhibit behaviour problems. The aim in this study was to investigate the frequency of potentially problematic behaviours experienced by a convenience sample of companion dog owners and to establish if the presence of these behaviours was associated with demographic variables, involvement in dog training activities and participation in other dog-human interactions. Potentially problematic behaviours were reported to occur by the 413 adult participants only infrequently, but fell into five factors; disobedience, unfriendliness/aggression, nervousness, anxiety/destructiveness and excitability. Each of these factors was associated with a number of owner and dog characteristics. Engagement in training activities was predictive of lower scores being obtained for many of the behaviours, as well as increased involvement in shared activities. Some of the behaviours, particularly the perceived friendliness of the dog, were also predictive of involvement in shared activities. This confirms that strategies designed to increase participation in dog training activities and promote canine sociability may have significant benefits for both companion dog owners and their dogs.     

Dog and owner demographic characteristics and dog personality trait associations

The aim of this study was to analyze the relationships between four personality traits (calmness, trainability, dog sociability and boldness) of dogs (Canis familiaris) and dog and owner demographics on a large sample size with 14,004 individuals. German speaking dog owners could characterize their dog by filling out a form on the Internet. There were five demographic variables for dogs and nine for owners. Two statistical methods were used for investigating the associations between personality and demographic traits: the more traditional general linear methods and regression trees that are ideal for analyzing non-linear relationships in the structure of the data. The results showed that calmness is influenced primarily by the dog's age, the neutered status, the number of different types of professional training courses (e.g. obedience, agility) the dog had experienced and the age of acquisition. The least calm dogs were less than 2.5 years old, neutered and acquired after the first 12 weeks of age, while the calmest dogs were older than 6.9 years. Trainability was affected primarily by the training experiences, the dog's age, and the purpose of keeping the dog. The least trainable dogs had not received professional training at all and were older than 3 years. The most trainable dogs were those who participated in three or more types of professional training. Sociability toward conspecifics was mainly determined by the age, sex, training experience and time spent together. The least sociable dogs were older than 4.8 years and the owners spent less than 3 h with the dog daily. The most sociable dogs were less than 1.5 years old. Males were less sociable toward their conspecifics than females. Boldness was affected by the sex and age of the dog and the age of acquisition. The least bold were females acquired after the age of 1 year or bred by the owner. The boldest dogs were males, acquired before the age of 12 weeks, and were younger than 2 years old. Other variables, including the owner's gender, age, education, previous experience with dogs, the number of people and dogs in the household, and purpose of keeping the dogs had minor, but detectable effects. The results suggest that on-line questionnaires are a very effective means for collecting data about dog behavior, especially if owners are motivated by instant feedback. However, note that the characteristics of dogs in the present study were reported by the owners, and the associations with the traits do not necessarily represent a causal relationship.     

Intra- and interbreed genetic variations of mitochondrial DNA major non-coding regions in Japanese native dog breeds [Canis familiaris)

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) major non-coding regions were amplified from 73 dogs of eight Japanese native dog breeds and from 21 dogs of 16 non-Japanese dog breeds by the polymerase chain reaction and their DNA sequences were determined. A total of 51 nucleotide positions within the non-coding region (969–972 base pairs) showed nucleotide variations of which 48 were caused by transition. These nucleotide substitutions were abundant in the region proximate to tRNA^Pro. In addition to the nucleotide substitutions, the dog mtDNA D-loop sequences had a heteroplasmic repetitive sequence (TACACGTÀCG) involving size variation. The DNA sequences of the non-coding region were classified into four different groups by phylogenetic analysis and the deepest branchpoints of this dog phylogeny was calculated to about 100 000 years before the present. Phylogenetic analysis showed that Japanese native dog breeds could not be clearly delimited as distinct breeds. Many haplotypes found in members of some clustering groups were seen in each dog breed, and interbreed nucleotide differences between Japanese dog breeds were almost the same as the intrabreed nucleotide diversities.