Productive Perception

Many generations of psychologists have been concerned with the problem of how we see things as they are in reality. The science of vision has accumulated extensive material on this subject; and many more or less correct hypotheses have been proposed, formulated in the various conceptual terms of philosophy, art, psychology, physiology, biophysics, mathematics, and technology. Investigation into the working of the visual system has not developed equally in these fields. One instructive fact will not go unnoticed in the future history of the science of vision: in psychology, interest in image phenomena has fallen sharply, first because of behaviorism, then because of too broad an interpretation of the classic teachings on conditioned reflexes, and later because of cybernetic ideas. It has been maintained probably in a single area, psychiatry, in which investigative and medical material has not permitted image and hallucinatory phenomena to be ignored. In the early 1960s representatives of various psychological and physiological schools and disciplines returned anew to the long-for gotten topic of image phenomena. As Holt has aptly remarked (15), images are returning from exile. As generally happens in science, the rekindling of interest in a traditional topic occurred through the internal logic of studying the problems of perception in the light of the relatively new fields in science and technology. If we trace the development of only some of them — design theory, engineering psychology, and the theory of creative activity (as a separate subdivision of art, science, and the psychology of creativity) — it becomes clear that the return to image phenomena is due to the inability of behaviorism and associated physiological conditioning theories to explain complex forms of behavior and mental activity.     

Pavlov and psychophysiology in the 21st century]

Psychophysiology, physiological psychology (Sechenov), human physiology of higher nervous activity (Pavlov) is an interdisciplinary field, which appeared at the interface between psychology and neurosciences for exploration of the brain mechanisms of mental functions. The fundamental complementation of subjective and objective, psychological and neurobiological approaches as the facets of investigation of the basically whole process made it possible to fill with a specific content and clearly differentiate the forms of human psyche such as emotion, consciousness, personality, character, and creativity.     

Fields, networks, creativity and evolution.

Organisms constitute wholes as a result of a network of organizing relations between the parts. In animals, this network has a morphological as well as a psychological aspect, and it regulates morphogenesis as well as behaviour. It is pointed out that closed networks of higher order, that have the characteristics of single organisms (communities of ants, termites and bees, cases of symbiosis, and perhaps even the Earth), could also possess that regulating aspect. In the case of humans, the network can be associated with creativity and the structure of knowledge. Individuation (as defined in Jung's psychology) refers to the assimilation of the network into consciousness. The theory developed in the present paper could give rise to a multi-disciplinary approach to the study of life.     

Mirror,Mirror on the Wall,I Deserve More Than All: Perceived Attractiveness and Self-Interested Behavior

A substantial amount of research has demonstrated that good-looking individuals are perceived and treated in a favorable manner; however, relatively little research has examined how attractive people actually behave. There are two predominant theories on attractiveness: the self-fulfilling nature of “what is beautiful is good” from social psychology and the evolutionary perspective of attractiveness, make divergent predictions in this regard. The current research systematically investigated whether physical attractiveness can predict self-interested behavior and, if so, in which direction. Across five studies (N = 1303), self-perceived attractiveness, either chronically experienced (Studies 1–3) or temporarily heightened (Studies 4 and 5), predicted and increased self-interested behavioral intention and behavior. Increased psychological entitlement acted as a mediator in this process (Studies 1–5). Furthermore, the publicity of the act was a boundary condition for the effect of attractiveness on self-interested behavior (Study 5). We have discussed theoretical and practical implications.     

Conscious Augmentation of Creative State Enhances “Real” Creativity in Open-Ended Analogical Reasoning

Humans have an impressive ability to augment their creative state (i.e., to consciously try and succeed at thinking more creatively). Though this “thinking cap” phenomenon is commonly experienced, the range of its potential has not been fully explored by creativity research, which has often focused instead on creativity as a trait. A key question concerns the extent to which conscious augmentation of state creativity can improve creative reasoning. Although artistic creativity is also of great interest, it is creative reasoning that frequently leads to innovative advances in science and industry. Here, we studied state creativity in analogical reasoning, a form of relational reasoning that spans the conceptual divide between intelligence and creativity and is a core mechanism for creative innovation. Participants performed a novel Analogy Finding Task paradigm in which they sought valid analogical connections in a matrix of word-pairs. An explicit creativity cue elicited formation of substantially more creative analogical connections (measured via latent semantic analysis). Critically, the increase in creative analogy formation was not due to a generally more liberal criterion for analogy formation (that is, it appeared to reflect “real” creativity rather than divergence at the expense of appropriateness). The use of an online sample provided evidence that state creativity augmentation can be successfully elicited by remote cuing in an online environment. Analysis of an intelligence measure provided preliminary indication that the influential “threshold hypothesis,” which has been proposed to characterize the relationship between intelligence and trait creativity, may be extensible to the new domain of state creativity.     

Creativity in biology and in the human mind (Manifestation of Concepts)

The article is based on the widely held notion that creativity is a phenomenon studied in two branches of the science of life: psychology (in a wide sense) on one side, and evolutionary biology on the other. Therefore, an analysis of creativity of the mind should contribute to the solution of problems in biological evolution, problems which cannot be fully explained by the orthodox assumption of small steps of mutation and selection. This analysis is restricted to three classes of creativity, which are: a) organismal creativity, as exemplified by the creation of organs such as "eye" and "heart". b) mental-scientific creativity, exemplified by Newton's notion of "gravity" between planets and stars. c) mental-technological creativity, exemplified by Gutenberg's invention of "printing by movable types". The analysis of these classes is based on concepts, which are interrelated structurally by means of propositions. Two types of propositions are distinguished: factual ones named "cognita", and hypothetical ones named "hypothetical episodes". A further basis of the analysis is the assumption that creativity consists of several phases, of which incubation and insight are the essential ones. In carrying out the analysis, the writer shows that incubation functions on two or three lines of thought, one of which can be expressed by factual cognita, and the other ones predominantly by hypothetical episodes. Those several lines are integrated by means of logical implication, by which insight into a novel concept is obtained. In a second method of analysis, the several lines of incubation are represented by networks. In this method, the novel concept is obtained by integrating the individual networks into a common structure. It is proved that the methods of analysis described above can be applied to all three classes of creativity definined previously. Drawing conclusions from the analysis, the writer points out that the organismal concepts were manifested in biological evolution many millions of years prior to the appearance of man and his brain on earth. The writer, therefore, argues that a great number of concepts are not a creation of man's mind, but are entities which pre-existed man and were manifested to him. Such concepts may be conceived as forming a time-independent "conceptual universe" external to the "material universe" of galaxies, stars and organisms. Thus, for example, the concept of an "eye" was manifested in biological evolution as the organ "eye" of many organisms. Much later, this concept was manifested to man, when he invented the optical camera.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

Empowered imagination and mental vulnerability: local theory of mind and spiritual experience in Vanuatu

‘Theory of mind’ in developmental psychology focuses on how children develop the ability to infer others’ beliefs, desires, and intentions. Anthropologists have taken up the notion of ‘theory of mind’ to explore the way cultural differences in representations of beliefs, desires, and intentions affect everyday lives. In Oceania, anthropologists have noted that inferences about others’ intentions are not accorded a privileged role in social interaction. In Vanuatu, I find, it is often the material, rather than immaterial, aspects of relatedness that are elaborated upon. People think about knowledge, creativity, meaning, and intention not as confined to a bounded mental or inner domain, but as discoverable through the body, and in the world at large. I argue here that this propensity to locate meaning and moral purpose as external to the mind corresponds to a ‘porous’ view of self and mind, and that this in turn may open people to experience vivid, intense, and often tangible forms of spiritual encounter.     

Schizotypy, creativity and mating success in humans

There is an evolutionary puzzle surrounding the persistence of schizophrenia, since it is substantially heritable and associated with sharply reduced fitness. However, some of the personality traits which are predictive of schizophrenia are also associated with artistic creativity. Geoffrey Miller has proposed that artistic creativity functions to attract mates. Here, we investigate the relationship between schizotypal personality traits, creative activity, and mating success in a large sample of British poets, visual artists, and other adults. We show that two components of schizotypy are positively correlated with mating success. For one component, this relationship is mediated by creative activity. Results are discussed in terms of the evolution of human creativity and the genesis of schizophrenia.     

A Measurement of Creativity in Western Civilization

It is surprising that anthropologists have neglected the study of creativity (artistic and philosophical) in the higher civilizations and the clustering at times of genius—especially strange that almost no one has followed up Kroeber's analysis of this in his Configurations of Culture Growth. The epicyclical theory made possible the prediction of the curve of creativity during the evolutions of Graeco-Roman and Western civilizations. A five-year empirical, quantitative study of creativity in Western civilization, with resultant name lists attached as on appendix to this paper, resulted in a curve of creativity substantially as predicted; it proved almost identical with Kroeber's conclusions in his Configurations. An earlier study (1958) for Graeco-Roman civilization had had the same results, as Kroeber had acknowledged.     

The Graphic Art of Bykhovskii

Vygotsky's preface to A. Bykhovskii,'s book Graphika is among the prefaces he wrote in various domains of art during his career before entered psychology. He offers readers the key (taken from Hans Christiansen) to looking at and understanding the special character of Bykhovskii's creativity. Vygotsky emphasizes Bykhovskii's style of using lines in a dualistic way thus creating an original style. Vygotsky analyzes this characteristic using paintings from Bykhovskii's career.     

Creative cognition: the diverse operations and the prospect of applying a cognitive neuroscience perspective

Creativity is defined quite simply as "the ability to create" in most lexicons, but, in reality, this is a complex and heterogeneous construct about which there is much to be discovered. The cognitive approach to investigating creativity recognizes and seeks to understand this complexity by investigating the component processes involved in creative thinking. The cognitive neuroscience approach, which has only limitedly been applied in the study of creativity, should ideally build on these ideas in uncovering the neural substrates of these processes. Following an introduction into the early experimental ideas and the cognitive approach to creativity, we discuss the theoretical background and behavioral methods for testing various processes of creative cognition, including conceptual expansion, the constraining influence of examples, creative imagery and insight. The complex relations between the underlying component processes of originality and relevance across these tasks are presented thereafter. We then outline how some of these conceptual distinctions can be evaluated by neuroscientific evidence and elaborate on the neuropsychological approach in the study of creativity. Given the current state of affairs, our recommendation is that despite methodological difficulties that are associated with investigating creativity, adopting the cognitive neuroscience perspective is a highly promising framework for validating and expanding on the critical issues that have been raised in this paper.     

Organismic sets. Scientific creativity,its spread and applications

The phenomenon of mental creativity is considered from the standpoint of the theory of organismic sets, developed by the author in a series of previous publications. It is shown how the differences in creativity between different individuals may be interpreted on this basis, and why extreme creativity is rare. A parallel interpretation for facility in observation is given, and it is shown why facility in creativity and observation is much rarer than either individual facility. A further conclusion is drawn regarding the deducibility of the laws of nature by purely logical means.     

The Conditions for Reliability of a Psychological Experiment

The problem of the reliability of a psychological experiment has assumed considerable significance in contemporary experimental psychology. This problem has been posed especially and studied in detail in bourgeois psychological techniques and testing. For this reason, theories on the criteria of the reliability of an investigation are usually connected with these areas of study. Furthermore, the approach to this problem, typical of bourgeois psychology, is also linked to these areas of psychology.     

The use and abuse of Darwinian psychology: Its impact on attempts to determine the evolutionary basis of human rape

This paper evaluates the impact of the recent theoretical shift to Darwinian psychology on attempts to determine the evolutionary basis of human rape. The first step in this evaluation is a summary of the debate over whether human rape is an adaptation or a by-product of other evolved differences between men and women as it was presented in a pre-Darwinian psychological framework. These early evolutionary explanations are then contrasted with more recent works addressing the same issue from the perspective of Darwinian psychology. It is concluded that while the new approach may have helped generate new predictions, it has also led to the unwarranted exclusion of relevant data, led to questionable interpretations of new types of data, introduced ambiguous jargon, and potentially jeopardized the testability of certain evolutionary explanations. The root of most of these problems is suggested to exist, not in the principles of Darwinian psychology, but in the exaggeration of the differences between Darwinian psychology and earlier evolutionary approaches.     

Who's afraid of a cognitive neuroscience of creativity?

This article has two goals. First, the ideas outlined here can be seen as a sustained and disciplined demolition project aimed at sanitizing our bad habits of thinking about creativity. Apart from the enormous amount of fluff out there, the study of creativity is, quite unfortunately, still dominated by a number of rather dated ideas that are either so simplistic that nothing good can possibly come out of them or, given what we know about the brain, factually mistaken. As cognitive neuroscience is making more serious contact with the knowledge base of creativity, we must, from the outset, clear the ground of these pernicious fossil traces from a bygone era. The best neuroimaging techniques help little if we don't know what to look for. Second, as an antidote to these theoretical duds, the article offers fresh ideas on possible mechanisms of creativity. Given that they are grounded in current understanding of cognitive and neural processes, it is hoped that these ideas represent steps broadly pointing in the right direction. In the end, the fundamental question we must ask ourselves is what, exactly, are the mental processes--or their critical elements--that yield creative thoughts.     

What Capabilities for the Animal?

In this essay, I defend a bi-constructivist approach to ethology—a constructivist ethology assuming that each animal adopts constructivist strategies. I put it in opposition to what I call a realist-Cartesian approach, which is currently the dominant approach to ethology and comparative psychology. The starting point of the bi-constructivist approach can be formulated as a shift from the classical Aristotelian question “What is an animal?” to the Spinozean question, which is much less classical but which seems to me to be much stronger: “What are the capacities of the animal?”. Is it possible to conceptualize an ethology which insists on interpretation and therefore on invention, innovation and creativity, rather than on causality, the monotony of behavioural routines, and/or genetic or environmental determination? Such an ethology would be based not on the fiction of an absent observer but on fully recognizing the necessity of an observer, who is effectively present in order to get an observation. A pluralistic ethology does not dissociate itself from the marginal epistemologies of practitioners like animal trainers, hunters, stockbreeders etc., or, moreover, non-western experts. An ethology of this kind is not clamped within the boundaries of purely academic epistemology, obsessed by demarcation lines between the human and the animal. My work on the bi-constructivist approach represents a contribution towards the elaboration of an authentically biosemiotic ethology, one which is significantly different from the mechanical ethology of today.     

Three Facets of Meaning

Vygotsky and Luria's "cultural-historical theory of psychology" is little known to broad circles of the Soviet public. Nor is this theory yet very familiar in the world of pedagogy, since the leaders in this area of psychology do not yet have a completed system of views. The "cultural-historical theory of psychology" is just in the process of being formed, but even so has managed to do much damage to psychology's theoretical front, deftly concealing its pseudoscientific aspects alien to Marxism with quotations from the works of the founders of Marxism. This theory is being aggressively introduced into pedagogical practice in higher education; its authors are forcefully publicizing it in the pages of journals and books, textbooks, and encyclopedias; and it makes claims to being the closest to Marxism of all the psychological currents existing in the USSR.     

Crisis discussions in psychology--New historical and philosophical perspectives

In this introductory article, we provide a historical and philosophical framework for studying crisis discussions in psychology. We first trace the various meanings of crisis talk outside and inside of the sciences. We then turn to Kuhn’s concept of crisis, which is mainly an analyst’s category referring to severe clashes between theory and data. His view has also dominated many discussions on the status of psychology: Can it be considered a “mature” science, or are we dealing here with a pre- or multi-paradigmatic discipline? Against these Kuhnian perspectives, we point out that especially, but not only in psychology distinctive crisis declarations and debates have taken place since at least the late 19th century. In these, quite different usages of crisis talk have emerged, which can be determined by looking at (a) the content and (b) the dimensions of the declarations, as well as (c) the functions these declarations had for their authors. Thus, in psychology at least, ‘crisis’ has been a vigorous actor’s category, occasionally having actual effects on the future course of research. While such crisis declarations need not be taken at face value, they nevertheless help to break the spell of Kuhnian analyses of psychology’s history. They should inform ways in which the history and philosophy of psychology is studied further.     

Understanding the psychology of geriatric edentulous patients

doi: 10.1111/j.1741‐2358.2011.00496.x Understanding the psychology of geriatric edentulous patients Objective: This article focuses on understanding our older patients who require complete prosthodontic care. By breaking down the patient psychology to its component parts, it is easier to obtain a clear picture of this special cohort of patients. Considering the increase in number of geriatric edentulous patients, this knowledge will help the dentist serve the geriatric population better. Background: The role of psychology and personality in complete denture treatment is well documented. The geriatric patient who needs complete dentures has a psychological aspect that needs consideration. Although significant, these aspects may sometimes be ignored or considered irrelevant. Materials and methods: A review of relevant literature was carried out to obtain data on the psychology and personality of geriatric, complete denture patients and their behavioural changes. The obtained data was filtered and condensed to provide a short but comprehensive look at the geriatric edentulous patient’s psychology. Conclusion: When handling geriatric edentulous patients, the dentist must be confident of addressing and managing the psychology of these patients. A thorough understanding of the geriatric mental state thus becomes important and significant for the clinician.     

The Perception of a Poetic Text in Light of the Evolution of a System of Poetic Creativity

Studies of the laws of development of a system of artistic creativity necessarily involve such psychological concepts as style of thought and perception, the sociopsychological climate of the epoch, etc. This article brings together the main theoretical and experimental results of studies of the evolution of poetic works over the last 180 years. Ideas concerning the cyclic nature of evolution and the complex system of mediations linking works of art and their readers receive their confirmation for this domain.