Rodents of the Caribbean: origin and diversification of hutias unravelled by next-generation museomics

The Capromyidae (hutias) are endemic rodents of the Caribbean and represent a model of dispersal for non-flying mammals in the Greater Antilles. This family has experienced severe extinctions during the Holocene and its phylogenetic affinities with respect to other caviomorph relatives are still debated as morphological and molecular data disagree. We used target enrichment and next-generation sequencing of mitochondrial and nuclear genes to infer the phylogenetic relationships of hutias, estimate their divergence ages, and understand their mode of dispersal in the Greater Antilles. We found that Capromyidae are nested within Echimyidae (spiny rats) and should be considered a subfamily thereof. We estimated that the split between hutias and Atlantic Forest spiny rats occurred 16.5 (14.8–18.2) million years ago (Ma), which is more recent than the GAARlandia land bridge hypothesis (34–35 Ma). This would suggest that during the Early Miocene, an echimyid-like ancestor colonized the Greater Antilles from an eastern South American source population via rafting. The basal divergence of the Hispaniolan Plagiodontia provides further support for a vicariant separation between Hispaniolan and western islands (Bahamas, Cuba, Jamaica) hutias. Recent divergences among these western hutias suggest Plio-Pleistocene dispersal waves associated with glacial cycles.     

New myrmecomorphous longhorned beetles from Haiti and the Dominican Republic with a key to Anaglyptini and Tillomorphini of Hispaniola (Coleoptera, Cerambycidae, Cerambycinae)

First records of the tribes Anaglyptini and Tillomorphini (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae: Cerambycinae) are documented for Hispaniola. A new genus of a highly myrmecomorphic longhorned beetle (Licracanthagen. n.) is described and illustrated based on one species (Licracantha formicariasp. n.) and provisionally assigned to Tillomorphini. Three other new species of ant mimic longhorned beetles are described and illustrated: Calliclytus macorissp. n. (Tillomorphini), Tilloclytus baorucosp. n., and Tilloclytus neibasp. n. (Anaglyptini). An identification key and distribution map to all known Hispaniolan species of these two tribes are presented.     

Taxonomic studies in the Miconieae (Melastomataceae). VII. Miconia howardiana,a new speices from Hispaniola

Miconia howardiana, which is known only from a diverse moist montane forest in the vicinity of Loma Trocha de Pey (or “Monteada Nueva”), the easternmost peak of the Sierra de Baoruco, is described and illustrated. It is compared to phenetically similar (and probably phylogenetically related) species of theMiconia favosa complex, i.e.,M. favosa, M. xenotricha, M. campanensis M. Sintenisii, M. foveolata, andM. pycnoneura. The species of this complex are characterized by bullate leaves with frequently cordate bases and often six secondary veins. Most species also have large berries and flowers, 5-locular ovaries, large inflorescence bracts and bracteoles, and more or less dendritic multicellular hairs.     

The role of amphibian antimicrobial peptides in protection of amphibians from pathogens linked to global amphibian declines

Amphibian species have experienced population declines and extinctions worldwide that are unprecedented in recent history. Many of these recent declines have been linked to a pathogenic skin fungus, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, or to iridoviruses of the genus Ranavirus. One of the first lines of defense against pathogens that enter by way of the skin are antimicrobial peptides synthesized and stored in dermal granular glands and secreted into the mucus following alarm or injury. Here, I review what is known about the capacity of amphibian antimicrobial peptides from diverse amphibians to inhibit B. dendrobatidis or ranavirus infections. When multiple species were compared for the effectiveness of their in vitro antimicrobial peptides defenses against B. dendrobatidis, non-declining species of rainforest amphibians had more effective antimicrobial peptides than species in the same habitat that had recently experienced population declines. Further, there was a significant correlation between the effectiveness of the antimicrobial peptides and resistance of the species to experimental infection. These studies support the hypothesis that antimicrobial peptides are an important component of innate defenses against B. dendrobatidis. Some amphibian antimicrobial peptides inhibit ranavirus infections and infection of human T lymphocytes by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). An effective antimicrobial peptide defense against skin pathogens appears to depend on a diverse array of genes expressing antimicrobial peptides. The production of antimicrobial peptides may be regulated by signals from the pathogens. However, this defense must also accommodate potentially beneficial microbes on the skin that compete or inhibit growth of the pathogens. How this delicate balancing act is accomplished is an important area of future research.     

New genus and species of flea beetles (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae, Galerucinae, Alticini) from Puerto Rico, with comments on flea beetle diversity in the West Indies and a key to the West Indian Monoplatini genera

A new genus (Borinken) and five new species (Borinken elyunque, Distigmoptera chamorrae, Kiskeya elyunque, Ulrica eltoro, and Ulrica iviei) from Puerto Rico are described and illustrated. A keyto all West Indian Monoplatini genera is provided, as are keys to all speciesof Kiskeya and to the speciesof Ulrica from Puerto Rico. A list of the flea beetle genera, along with the number of species and some of the faunal features is presented and discussed for the West Indies.     

Floristic Richness and Affinities in the West Indies

Comparison of the common floristic elements between the West Indies and the surrounding continents shows a mosaic of affinities that are stronger to Central America and South America as a whole than with either one of them separately or with North America. However, since only 28% of the total West Indian seed plant flora is shared with other geographic regions of the world, the referred exercise is of limited value. Numerous tables are provided to show the distribution of genera throughout the archipelago. The application of phylogenetic studies into the service of biogeography is herein regarded as the next necessary step in elucidating the origins and affinities of the West Indian flora.

Jacquinia pauciflora (Theophrastaceae), a new species from Puerto Rico

A new species,Jacquinia pauciflora, is described from subtropical moist forest on karst hills (mogotes) in northwestern Puerto Rico.Jacquinia pauciflora is similar toJ. stenophylla Urban, from which it differs in several floral and leaf characters, but is possibly most closely related toJ. umbellata A. DC. A key to the species ofJacquinia occurring in Puerto Rico is provided.     

Flattening of Caribbean coral reefs: region-wide declines in architectural complexity

Coral reefs are rich in biodiversity, in large part because their highly complex architecture provides shelter and resources for a wide range of organisms. Recent rapid declines in hard coral cover have occurred across the Caribbean region, but the concomitant consequences for reef architecture have not been quantified on a large scale to date. We provide, to our knowledge, the first region-wide analysis of changes in reef architectural complexity, using nearly 500 surveys across 200 reefs, between 1969 and 2008. The architectural complexity of Caribbean reefs has declined nonlinearly with the near disappearance of the most complex reefs over the last 40 years. The flattening of Caribbean reefs was apparent by the early 1980s, followed by a period of stasis between 1985 and 1998 and then a resumption of the decline in complexity to the present. Rates of loss are similar on shallow (<6 m), mid-water (6–20 m) and deep (>20 m) reefs and are consistent across all five subregions. The temporal pattern of declining architecture coincides with key events in recent Caribbean ecological history: the loss of structurally complex Acropora corals, the mass mortality of the grazing urchin Diadema antillarum and the 1998 El Nino Southern Oscillation-induced worldwide coral bleaching event. The consistently low estimates of current architectural complexity suggest regional-scale degradation and homogenization of reef structure. The widespread loss of architectural complexity is likely to have serious consequences for reef biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and associated environmental services.     

The progress of plant succession on the Soufriere of St. Vincent: Observations in 1972

Summary The Soufrier volcano of St. Vincent, West Indies, erupted in 1902 destroying the plant cover. Sands (1912) and Beard (1945) subsequently reported on the recolonisation by plants. The present paper results from a further examination in 1972. Relatively little change in 30 years was found.Prestoea montana has invaded significantly between 425 m and 600 m. Vegetation zones have migrated upward about 30 m vertically with the virtual extinction of a moss and lichen community found around the crater rim in 1942. The writer's renewed study of the Soufriere in 1972 was made possible by a grant from the National, Geographic Society of Washington, D.C. which is gratefully acknowledged. Great assistance while on the island was received from officers of the Department of Agriculture, especially from Mr. C. N. de Freitas, Acting Superintendent of Agriculture.     

Ecophysiology meets conservation: understanding the role of disease in amphibian population declines

Infectious diseases are intimately associated with the dynamics of biodiversity. However, the role that infectious disease plays within ecological communities is complex. The complex effects of infectious disease at the scale of communities and ecosystems are driven by the interaction between host and pathogen. Whether or not a given host-pathogen interaction results in progression from infection to disease is largely dependent on the physiological characteristics of the host within the context of the external environment. Here, we highlight the importance of understanding the outcome of infection and disease in the context of host ecophysiology using amphibians as a model system. Amphibians are ideal for such a discussion because many of their populations are experiencing declines and extinctions, with disease as an important factor implicated in many declines and extinctions. Exposure to pathogens and the host's responses to infection can be influenced by many factors related to physiology such as host life history, immunology, endocrinology, resource acquisition, behaviour and changing climates. In our review, we discuss the relationship between disease and biodiversity. We highlight the dynamics of three amphibian host-pathogen systems that induce different effects on hosts and life stages and illustrate the complexity of amphibian-host-parasite systems. We then review links between environmental stress, endocrine-immune interactions, disease and climate change.     

Testing for non-randomness in sizes and habitats of West Indian lizards: choice of species pool affects conclusions from null models

Summary Several null models are proposed for testing whether size or habitat differences in West IndianAnolis lizards are greater than expected by chance. The models differ primarily in choice of the pool from which species are sampled to form random communities. Regardless of choice of pool, size differences in the Lesser Antilles are greater than null models predict; the pool using species on the known source (Puerto Rico) gives a greater variance in ratios but about the same mean ratio (for males), or a greater mean ratio (for females), compared with the pool composed of species on the islands being tested (the Stronget al., 1979, Galápagos procedure). On satellite islands of the Greater Antilles, sizes do not differ more than expected from null models. Pools composed of mainland-source species give null communities with more small or more large ratios than those composed of island species, depending upon whether four-species islands are included or excluded, respectively. Colwell and Winkler's unmodified Narcissus hypothesis is contradicted by these results in procedures where species not likely to be able to occur on small islands are included in the species pool. Using the most biologically reasonable, but not other, choices of source pool, species on satellite islands of the Greater Antilles differ more in structural habitat then expected by chance. In contrast to some of the results on size, here mainland-source pools are more likely to produce a statistically significant difference between real and random communities, as predicted by the Narcissus hypothesis. However, exclusion of structural habitat categories not found on satellite islands is necessary to achieve this significance.     

<Emphasis Type=Italic>Lasiocroton trelawniensis</Emphasis> (Euphorbiaceae), a Critically Endangered Species from the Cockpit Country of Jamaica,Belongs to <Emphasis Type=Italic>Bernardia</Emphasis> (Euphorbiaceae)

Lasiocroton trelawniensis (Euphorbiaceae), a critically endangered species from the Cockpit Country of Jamaica, belongs to Bernardia (Euphorbiaceae). Botanical Review Vol. 74, No., 1 2008.—A taxonomic study based on scanning electron microscopy of pollen, macro-morphology, and a molecular phylogenetic analysis of the chloroplast DNA regions trnL-F and rbcL shows that Lasiocroton trelawniensis belongs to the Neotropical genus Bernardia. The main morphological differences between Bernardia and Lasiocroton are given, and the new combination Bernardia trelawniensis is provided.

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Resumen  Un estudio taxonómico basado en microscopía electrónica de barrido del polen, en macro-morfología, y en análisis filogenéticos moleculares de las regiones del ADN de los cloroplastos trnL-F y rbcL muestra que Lasiocroton trelawniensis pertenece al género neotropical Bernardia. Se dan las principales diferencias morfológicas entre Bernardia y Lasiocroton y se da así mismo la nueva combinación Bernardia trelawniensis.

     

Zooarchaeological analysis of prehistoric vertebrate exploitation at the Grand Bay Site,Carriacou, West Indies

This paper discusses zooarchaeological analysis of vertebrate faunal specimens from Grand Bay, a Ceramic Age (ca.ad 400–1300) site on the island of Carriacou in the Grenadines, West Indies. Using faunal data to assess subsistence patterns of vertebrate exploitation during late site occupation, we can begin to better understand Grand Bay procurement strategies and coral reef exploitation. Preliminary zooarchaeological results imply that Grand Bay vertebrate exploitation emphasized marine resources over terrestrial resources, with particular emphasis on coral reef habitats and fish. The faunal data are discussed in relation to common patterns of prehistoric vertebrate exploitation in the Caribbean and fishing strategies. The Grand Bay faunal sample also provides a foundation from which to formulate future research foci and question zooarchaeological approaches to understanding prehistoric coral reef exploitation in the Caribbean.     

Size and shape variation in a Lesser Antillean anole, Anolis oculatus (Sauria: Iguanidae) in relation to habitat.

The anole fauna of the Lesser Antilles is depauperate in relation to that of the Greater Antilles, where complex communities characterized by adaptive specialization and convergent structure are present. Much of this adaptation is the result of changes in body size and shape, probably as a result of interspecific competition. Here we present data on variation in size and shape within a solitary Lesser Antillean species occupying an ecologically heterogenous island, and test the hypothesis that natural selection for varying environmental conditions is the cause of this variation. Univariate (analysis of variance), bivariate (analysis of covariance) and multivariate (multiple-group principal component analysis, canonical variate analysis) analysis showed that there is considerable geographic variation in size and shape within Anolis oculatus on Dominica. Partial Mantel tests rejected the null hypothesis of no association between size and shape and environmental variation. The possible proximate and evolutionary mechanisms responsible for these patterns are discussed. Despite these overall associations, a considerable amount of variation in shape appears to be unrelated to environmental variation.     

Global diversity of island floras from a macroecological perspective

Islands harbour a significant portion of all plant species worldwide. Their biota are often characterized by narrow distributions and are particularly susceptible to biological invasions and climate change. To date, the global richness pattern of islands is only poorly documented and factors causing differences in species numbers remain controversial. Here, we present the first global analysis of 488 island and 970 mainland floras. We test the relationship between island characteristics (area, isolation, topography, climate and geology) and species richness using traditional and spatial models. Area is the strongest determinant of island species numbers ( R ² = 0.66) but a weaker predictor for mainlands ( R ² = 0.25). Multivariate analyses reveal that all investigated variables significantly contribute to insular species richness with area being the strongest followed by isolation, temperature and precipitation with about equally strong effects. Elevation and island geology show relatively weak yet significant effects. Together these variables account for 85% of the global variation in species richness.     

A biogeographical perspective on ecological systems: some personal reflections

During my graduate studies, I characterized patterns of geographical distribution and taxonomic differentiation in birds of the West Indies, which suggested that species undergo phases of expansion and contraction similar to the taxon cycles that E. O. Wilson had described for Melanesian ants. Fieldwork in the early 1970s with George Cox confirmed that these phases were associated with variation in habitat distribution and abundance on individual islands, tying together local ecology and biogeography. Because taxon‐cycle stage was independent of taxonomic or ecological relationships among birds of the West Indies, George and I postulated that whether a species was in a phase of expansion or contraction reflected the outcome of coevolved relationships with antagonists, including pathogens. The taxon cycle concept had a cool reception initially, but subsequent phylogeographical analyses, beginning in the early 1990s with Eldredge Bermingham, provided a time scale that confirmed the relationship between taxon cycle stage and the relative age of the most recent population expansion. The discrete nature of islands allows one to visualize taxon cycles in island systems, but the principle should apply in a continental biota as well. The absence of strong phylogenetic effects in distribution and abundance is consistent with evolutionary lability caused by coevolutionary outcomes with specialized antagonists. Related species appear to compete for resources on a more‐or‐less equal footing across a broad range of environments, and their distribution at any particular time is likely to be determined primarily by their relationships with pathogens, among other antagonists. This model of distribution and abundance within a regional community is consistent with much of what we know about the interactions between pathogens and their host populations, but testing the model will require the development of a new research programme focused on endemic pathogen effects in natural communities.     

Socio-economic drivers of freshwater fish declines in a changing climate: a New Zealand perspective

New Zealand has a freshwater fish fauna characterized by high levels of national and local endemism and which is threatened by anthropogenic stressors including habitat destruction or deterioration, commercial harvest, pollution and interactions with invasive exotic species. Significant expansion of New Zealand's dairy production has recently created further deterioration of lowland water quality and greater pressure for water allocation in drier eastern regions of the South Island. New Zealand has large freshwater resources and its climate is predicted to experience less dramatic changes in mean annual temperature and precipitation than many other regions of the world as a result of anthropogenic climate change. Predicted changes in regional climate and further expansion of the dairy industry, however, will impose similar pressures on freshwater resources in northern New Zealand to those already acting to threaten freshwater biodiversity in the eastern South Island.     

West Indian novelties I: a new species of Marsdenia (Asclepiadaceae) from Puerto Rico and a new name for a Jamaican species of Calyptranthes (Myrtaceae)

The new speciesMarsdenia woodburyana from southwestern Puerto Rico is described, illustrated, and contrasted to its putatively closest relative. The new nameCalyptranthes proctorii is provided for the later homonymCalyptranthes uniflora Proctor.

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Resumen  En el presente artículo, la nueva especieMarsdenia woodburyana es descrita, ilustrada y comparada con su pariente mas cercano. Adicionalmente, se provee el nuevo nombreCalyptranthes proctorii (Myrtaceae) para reemplazarCalyptranthes uniflora Proctor, un homónimo posterior.