Karyotype analysis of some Minuartia L. (Caryophyllaceae) taxa

Karyotypic characters, mitotic metaphase chromosomes, monoploid idiograms and karyograms of Minuartia anatolica (Boiss.) Woronow var. phrygia (Bornm.) McNeill, Minuartia anatolica (Boiss.) Woronow var. scleranthoides (Boiss. & Noe) McNeill, Minuartia corymbulosa (Boiss. & Balansa) McNeill var. gypsophilloides McNeill and Minuartia aksoyi M.Koç & Hamzao?lu were investigated for the first time. Analysis of somatic metaphases showed that the chromosome numbers and the formulas of these taxa were 2n = 24 = 14m + 6sm + 4st for Minuartia anatolica var. phrygia, 2n = 14 = 6m + 8sm for Minuartia anatolica var. scleranthoides, 2n = 14 = 6m + 4sm + 4st for Minuartia corymbulosa var. gypsophilloides and 2n = 30 = 14m + 10sm + 6st for Minuartia aksoyi. No satellites were observed in the karyotypes of these taxa. Karyotype asymmetry was estimated by many different methods, namely the Stebbins classification, the karyotype asymmetry index (As K %), the total form percent (TF %), the Rec and Syi indices, the intrachromosomal asymmetry index (A1) and interchromosomal asymmetry index (A2), the dispersion index (DI), the degree of asymmetry of karyotype (A index) and the asymmetry index (AI).     

Bee Venom Ameliorates Cognitive Dysfunction Caused by Neuroinflammation in an Animal Model of Vascular Dementia

Vascular dementia (VaD) is caused by the reduction of blood supply by vessel occlusion and is characterized by progressive cognitive decline. VaD incidence has been growing due to the aging population, placing greater strain on social and economic resources. However, the pathological mechanisms underlying VaD remain unclear. Many studies have used the bilateral common carotid artery occlusion (BCCAO) animal model to investigate potential therapeutics for VaD. In this study, we investigated whether bee venom (BV) improves cognitive function and reduces neuroinflammation in the hippocampus of BCCAO animals. Animals were randomly divided into three groups: a sham group (n = 15), BCCAO control group (n = 15), and BV-treated BCCAO group (n = 15). BCCAO animals were treated with 0.1 μg/g BV at ST36 (“Joksamli” acupoint) four times every other day. In order to investigate the effect of BV treatment on cognitive function, we performed a Y-maze test. In order to uncover any potential relationship between these results and neuroinflammation, we also performed Western blotting in the BCCAO group. Animals that had been treated with BV showed an improved cognitive function and a reduced expression of neuroinflammatory proteins in the hippocampus, including Iba-1, TLR4, CD14, and TNF-α. Furthermore, we demonstrated that BV treatment increased pERK and BDNF in the hippocampus. The present study thus underlines the neuroprotective effect of BV treatment against BCCAO-induced cognitive impairment and neuroinflammation. Our findings suggest that BV may be an effective complementary treatment for VaD, as it may improve cognitive function and attenuate neuroinflammation associated with dementia.     

Vegetative compatibility and phenotypic characterization as a means of determining genetic diversity of Aspergillus flavus isolates

Toxigenic Aspergillus species produce mycotoxins that are carcinogenic, hepatotoxic and teratogenic immunosuppressing agents in both human and animals. Kenya frequently experiences outbreaks of aflatoxicosis with the worst occurring in 2010, which resulted in 215 deaths. We examined the possible reasons for these frequent aflatoxicosis outbreaks in Kenya by studying Aspergillus flavus diversity, phenotypes and mycotoxin profiles across various agricultural regions. Using diagonal transect random sampling, maize kernels were collected from Makueni, Homa Bay, Nandi, and Kisumu counties. Out of 37 isolates, nitrate non-utilizing auxotrophs complementation test revealed 20 vegetative compatibility groups. We designated these groups by the prefix “KVCG”, where “K” represented Kenya and consequently assigned numbers 1–20 based on our findings. KVCG14 and KVCG15 had highest distribution frequency (n = 13; 10.8 %). The distribution of the L-, S- and S-/L-morphotypes across the regions were 57 % (n = 21); 7 % (n = 3) and 36 % (n = 13), respectively. Furthermore, a unique isolate (KSM015) was identified that had characteristics of S-morphotype, but produced both aflatoxins B and G. Coconut agar medium (CAM) assay, TLC and HPLC analyses confirmed the presence or absence of aflatoxins in selected toxigenic and atoxigenic isolates. Diversity index (H′) analyses ranged from 0.11 (Nandi samples) to 0.32 (Kisumu samples). Heterokaryon compatibility ranged from 33 % (for the Makueni samples, n = 3) to 67 % (Nandi samples, n = 6). To our knowledge, this is the first reported findings for A. flavus diversity and distribution in Nandi, Homa Bay and Kisumu counties and may assist current and future researchers in the selection of biocontrol strategies to mitigate aflatoxin contamination as has been researched in Makueni and neighbouring counties.     

Magic angle spinning NMR spectroscopic metabolic profiling of gall bladder tissues for differentiating malignant from benign disease

Gall bladder tissue specimens obtained from 112 patients were examined by high resolution magic angle spinning (HR-MAS) NMR spectroscopy. Fifty one metabolites were identified by combination of one and two-dimensional NMR spectra. To our knowledge, this is the first report on metabolic profiling of gall bladder tissues using HR-MAS NMR spectroscopy. Metabolic profiles were evaluated for differentiation between benign Chronic Cholecystitis (CC, n = 66) and xantho-granulomatous cholecystitis (XGC, n = 21) and malignant gall bladder cancer (GBC, n = 25). Increase in choline containing compounds, amino acids, taurine, nucleotides and lactate as common metabolites were observed in malignant tissues whereas lipid content was found low as compared to benign tissues. Principal component analysis obtained from the NMR data showed clear distinction between CC and GBC tissue specimens; however, 27 % of XGC tissues were classified with GBC. The partial least square discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) multivariate analysis between benign (CC, XGC) and malignant (GBC) on the training data set (CC; n = 51, XGC; n = 15, GBC; n = 19 tissues specimens) provided 100 % sensitivity and 94.12 % specificity. This PLS-DA model when executed on the spectra of unknown tissue specimens (CC; n = 15, XGC; n = 6, GBC; n = 6) classified them into the three histological categories with more than 95 % of diagnostic accuracy. Non-invasive in vivo MRS technique may be used in future to differentiate between benign (CC and XGC) and malignant (GBC) gall bladder diseases.     

Dietary zinc depletion and repletion affects plasma proteins: an analysis of the plasma proteome

Zinc (Zn) deficiency is a problem world-wide. Current methods for assessing Zn status are limited to measuring plasma or serum Zn within populations suspected of deficiency. Despite the high prevalence of Zn deficiency in the human population there are no methods currently available for sensitively assessing Zn status among individuals. The purpose of this research was to utilize a proteomic approach using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2DE) and mass spectrometry to identify protein biomarkers that were sensitive to changes in dietary Zn levels in humans. Proteomic analysis was performed in human plasma samples (n = 6) obtained from healthy adult male subjects that completed a dietary Zn depletion/repletion protocol, current dietary zinc intake has a greater effect on fractional zinc absorption than does longer term zinc consumption in healthy adult men. Chung et al. (Am J Clin Nutr 87 (5):1224–1229, 2008). After a 13 day Zn acclimatization period where subjects consumed a Zn-adequate diet, the male subjects consumed a marginal Zn-depleted diet for 42 days followed by consumption of a Zn-repleted diet for 28 days. The samples at baseline, end of depletion and end of repletion were pre-fractionated through immuno-affinity columns to remove 14 highly abundant proteins, and each fraction separated by 2DE. Following staining by colloidal Coomassie blue and densitometric analysis, three proteins were identified by mass spectrometry as affected by changes in dietary Zn. Fibrin β and chain E, fragment double D were observed in the plasma protein fraction that remained bound to the immunoaffinity column. An unnamed protein that was related to immunoglobulins was observed in the immunodepleted plasma fraction. Fibrin β increased two-fold following the Zn depletion period and decreased to baseline values following the Zn repletion period; this protein may serve as a viable biomarker for Zn status in the future.     

Ploidy variation in Trigonobalanus verticillata (Fagaceae)

Cytological studies were carried out on two populations of Trigonobalanus verticillata in Yinggeling, Hainan Province, China (YGL), and Fraser’s Hill, Malaysia (FH). In the two populations, the pattern of interphase nuclei was of the simple chromocentre type, the mitotic prophases were of the proximal interstitial type and chromosome numbers were 2n = 2x = 14 (YGL) and 2n = 6x = 42 (FH), representing diploid and hexaploid respectively. The basic chromosome number of the species was x = 7; this is a unique number in the Fagaceae and in the Fagales as well. The characteristic karyotype of the diploid population in China was 2n = 14 = 8m + 4sm + 2st. Based on the new finding of the chromosome number in this study, we clarify the previous dispute about the basic chromosome number and propose that the two Asian Trigonobalanus species have closer affinity.     

Chromosome numbers in Pinguicula (Lentibulariaceae): survey, atlas, and taxonomic conclusions

Our study (survey, atlas of 136 microphotographs and 67 drawings) points out the actual chromosome numbers of 82 taxa of the genus Pinguicula L. They were gathered from literature and critically examined. In addition, numerous counts are published for the first time. They represent about 80% of all the taxa known. The basic chromosome numbers are x = 6, 8, 9, 11, and 14; the ploidy levels are 2n (diploid), 4n (tetraploid), 8n (octoploid) and 16n (hexadecaploid). The basic number x = 6 is a one-off, x = 8 and 11 are the most frequent in the genus; x = 14 indicates a hybridogenous differentiation process in the past. The caryological differentiation—chromosome numbers and ploidy level—is discussed with regard to distribution pattern, growth type, and infrageneric classification (at the level of sections).     

The role of bronchial epithelial cell apoptosis in the pathogenesis of COPD

There is an increased airway inflammation in the pathogenesis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and it has been suggested that there may also be problem in the apoptosis and renewal of cells. However, there are limited human airway cell studies, in particular those from larger airways such as bronchi. We cultured primary human bronchial epithelial cells (HBECs) from bronchial explants of smokers (n = 6) without COPD and smokers with COPD (n = 8). Apoptosis was studied by fluorescence activated cell sorting. qRT-PCR was used to assess mRNA expression for proteins involving apoptosis including p21^CIP1/WAF1, p53, caspase-8 and caspase-9. Although there was no difference in the rate of viable cells between cells from smokers and COPDs, the level of early apoptotic cells was significantly increased in COPD cells [mean ± standard error of mean (SEM) = 4.86 ± 3.2 %, p = 0.015] as compared to smokers (mean ± SEM = 2.71 ± 1.62 %). In contrast, the rate of late apoptotic cells was significantly decreased in COPD cells (mean ± SEM = 9.82 ± 5.71 %) comparing to smokers (mean ± SEM = 15.21 ± 5.08 %, p = 0.003). Although expression of mRNA for p21^CIP1/WAF1 and caspase-9 was similar in both groups, p53 and caspase-8 mRNA expression was significantly greater in COPD cells. These findings suggest that HBEC apoptosis is increased in COPD, and that this involves p53 and caspase-8 pathways.     

No differential effects of divergent isocaloric supplements on signaling for muscle protein turnover during recovery from muscle-damaging eccentric exercise

Unaccustomed high-intensity eccentric exercise (ECC) can provoke muscle damage including several days of muscle force loss. Post-exercise dietary supplementation may provide a strategy to accelerate rate of force regain by affecting mechanisms related to muscle protein turnover. The aim of the current study was to investigate if protein signaling mechanisms involved in muscle protein turnover would be differentially affected by supplementation with either whey protein hydrolysate and carbohydrate (WPH+CHO) versus isocaloric carbohydrate (CHO) after muscle-damaging ECC. Twenty-four young healthy participants received either WPH+CHO (n = 12) or CHO supplements (n = 12) during post-exercise recovery from 150 maximal unilateral eccentric contractions. Prior to, at 3 h and at 24, 48, 96 and/or 168 h post-exercise, muscle strength, muscle soreness, and Akt-mTOR and FOXO signaling proteins, were measured in an ECC exercising leg and in the contralateral non-exercise control leg (CON). After ECC, muscle force decreased by 23–27 % at 24 h post-exercise, which was followed by gradual, although not full recovery at 168 h post-exercise, with no differences between supplement groups. Phosphorylation of mTOR, p70S6K and rpS6 increased and phosphorylation of FOXO1 and FOXO3 decreased in the ECC leg, with no differences between supplement groups. Phosphorylation changes were also observed for rpS6, FOXO1 and FOXO3a in the CON leg, suggesting occurrence of remote tissue effects. In conclusion, divergent dietary supplementation types did not produce differences in signaling for muscle turnover during recovery from muscle-damaging exercise.     

Mitochondrial DNA mutations and polymorphisms in asthenospermic infertile men

In this study we performed a systematic sequence analysis of 6 mitochondrial genes (cytochrome oxidase I, cytochrome oxidase II, cytochrome oxidase III, adenosine triphosphate synthase6, ATP synthase8, and cytochrome b] in 66 infertile men suffering from asthenospermia (n = 34) in comparison to normospermic infertile men (n = 32) and fertile men (n = 100) from Tunisian population. A total of 72 nucleotide substitutions in blood cells mitochondrial DNA were found; 63 of them were previously identified and reported in the human mitochondrial DNA database (www.mitomap.org) and 9 were novel. We also detected in 3 asthenospermic patients a novel heteroplasmic missense mitochondrial mutation (m.9387 G>A) in COXIII gene (8.8 %) that was not found in any of normospermic infertile and fertile men. This mutation substituting the valine at position 61 to methionine in a conserved amino acid in the transmembrane functional domain of the polypeptide, induces a reduction of the hydropathy index (from +1.225 to +1.100) and a decrease of the protein 3D structures number (from 39 to 32) as shown by PolyPhen bioinformatic program.     

Profiling of the Soluble Proteome in Rat Hippocampus Post Propofol Anesthesia

The current study was designed to initially observe the changes in soluble proteome in rat hippocampus post anesthesia, trying to explore possible clues for elucidating the effects of propofol. Soluble proteins were separated by 2-dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE). Their expressions were observed at 1, 6, 24 h and 7 days after 3 h of propofol anesthesia. Spots exhibiting significant changes among different time-points were submitted to matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight mass spectrometer (MALDI-TOF MS) assay and peptide mass fingerprinting identification. The expression changes of selected proteins were further assayed using Western blot and RT-PCR. Twenty-six differentially expressed proteins were found and 19 were successfully identified with MALDI-TOF MS. Gene ontology analysis revealed these identified proteins were mainly cytosol (5) and/or cytoskeleton fractions (5). According to biological processes category, 9 proteins take part in development process, 12 are involved in metabolic process and 6 in regulatory function. Functionally, 17 proteins were involved in binding activities among which 12 possessed catalytic activities. Most changes took place within 24 h. Change patterns of selected proteins were identical in 2-DE and Western blot. Three mRNA of 5 selected proteins exhibited similar change patterns with those of their protein expressions. Soluble proteome in rat hippocampus are dynamically affected by propofol, with multiple processes being involved. They are possible explanations for propofol effects but further investigations are required.     

Cytomorphological diversity in some selected members of Poaceae from Parvati Valley in Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh,India

The present work includes detailed male meiotic studies on 46 species of grasses falling into 59 accessions from different localities of Parvati Valley in Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh in the altitudinal range of 1,100 to 2,750 m. All the species have been studied cytologically for the first time from the study area. The meiotic chromosome count of n = 14 for Calamagrostis emodensis is the first ever chromosome report. Three species, namely Agrostis alba (n = 21), Avena byzantina (n = 21) and Bromus inermis (n = 14) have been studied cytologically for the first time from India. New intraspecific diploid/polyploid cytotypes have been reported for Arthraxon serrulatus (2n = 4x = 32), Iseilema laxum (2n = 12x = 60), Digitaria albudens (2n = 8x = 72), Festuca kashmiriana (2n = 2x = 14) and Stipa orientalis (2n = 2x = 20). The existence of variable number of B-chromosomes (2n = 60 + 0-5B) has been reported for the first time in the 12x cytotype of Iseilema laxum. Secondary associations of chromosomes in the tetraploid cytotype of Cymbopogon martini (n = 20) indicated its secondary polyploid nature. As many as 18 species showed various meiotic anomalies such as the phenomenon of cytomixis involving inter PMC migration of chromatin material, chromatin stickiness, interbivalent connections, abnormal spindle activity, presence of bridges and laggards during anaphases and telophases and abnormal sporads. These meiotic abnormalities consequently yielded sterile and heterogeneous-sized fertile pollen grains. The polyploidy and aneuploidy have played an active role in the evolution of grasses.     

Genome size in Dahlia Cav. (Asteraceae–Coreopsideae)

The genus Dahlia (Asteraceae–Coreopsideae) is monophyletic according to a recent DNA phylogeny (ETS and ITS of rDNA). Traditionally, the genus has been divided into sections, but these have been shown not to be monophyletic. We have studied variation in genome size (DNA C-values) in a sample of species to investigate the possible effects of secondary metabolites on flow cytometry and Feulgen densitometry, and to see whether genome size variation has any systematic or phylogenetic significance. Using a range of cultivars, secondary compounds from corollas were shown to have only minor effects on the Feulgen method; the floral pigments were found to be relatively inert and seemed to have been extracted on fixation with acetic methanol. Freshly expanded corollas showed apparent apoptotic DNA decay in epidermal cells, so need to be used with caution. Flow cytometric measurements with propidium iodide in some cultivars resulted in a very similar average genome size (2C = 8.62 pg) as compared with Feulgen densitometry (2C = 8.84 pg). Leaf cytosol of D. variabilis has a demonstrable inhibitory effect on propidium iodide fluorescence, which may explain some of the intraspecific variation of C-values observed. DNA 2C-values ranged from 3.30 pg in D. dissecta (2n = 34) to 9.62 pg in a D. variabilis cultivar (2n = 64). The D. variabilis cultivars had broadly similar C-values showing a 1.16-fold range between cultivars. Some of this variation probably results from technical variables and the extent of genuine variation is uncertain. The highest 2Cx-value occurred in one D. coccinea accession (2.47 pg, 2n = 32; x = 8). D. coccinea with 2n = 64 showed slightly reduced Cx-values compared to D. coccinea with 2n = 32. Artificially produced interspecific hybrids had C-values that corresponded closely with expectations from the measured values obtained from their parents.     

Creatine-induced glucose uptake in type 2 diabetes: a role for AMPK-α?

This study focused on understanding the signaling mechanisms leading to GLUT-4 translocation and increased skeletal-muscle glucose uptake that follow creatine (Cr) supplementation in type 2 diabetes (n = 10). AMPK-α protein content presented a tendency to be higher (p = 0.06) after Cr supplementation (5 g/d for 12w). The changes in AMPK-α protein content significantly related (p < 0.001) to the changes in GLUT-4 translocation (r = 0.78) and Hb1Ac levels (r = ?0.68), suggesting that AMPK signaling may be implicated in the effects of supplementation on glucose uptake in type 2 diabetes.     

Prevention of neointimal hyperplasia in balloon-injured rat carotid artery via small interference RNA mediated downregulation of osteopontin gene

The aim of the present study was to take osteopontin (OPN) as molecular target to study its effects on injured intima model of carotid artery in rat using perivascular transfer of OPN-small interference RNA (siRNA). OPN mRNA in cultured VSMCs was quantified by real-time RT-PCR, and OPN-siRNA-002 was determined as the most sensitive sequence and used as transfected siRNA in the subsequent animal experiments. We established rat carotid arterial intima-injured model with balloon-injured method, and then perivascularly transfected OPN-siRNA-002 to study the role of OPN-siRNA in regulating several related genes including proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), transforming growth factor β₁(TGF-β₁), matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2), and matrix metalloproteinase-14 (MMP-14), as well as its role in neointimal formation. OPN mRNA and protein decreased about 50 % with corresponding decrease in intima thickness after transfecting with specific OPN-siRNA-002 compared with Pluronic control group and OPN-SCR-siRNA group on each time point (n = 6, p < 0.001), and this inhibiting effects persisted up to 14 days after balloon injury. PCNA, TGF-β₁, MMP-2, and MMP-14 mRNA and protein correlated directly with the respective levels of OPN, suggesting its functions via regulating these downstream factors (n = 6, p < 0.001). OPN may be a potential target gene in reducing the risk for arterial restenosis after vascular intervention.     

Proteomic analysis reveals significant elevation of heat shock protein 70 in patients with chronic heart failure due to arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy

As proteins are the ultimate biological determinants of phenotype of disease, we screened altered proteins associated with heart failure due to arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC) to identify biomarkers potential for rapid diagnosis of heart failure. By 2-dimensional gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry, we identified five commonly altered proteins with more than 1.5 fold changes in eight ARVC failing hearts using eight non-failing hearts as reference. Noticeably, one of the altered proteins, heat shock protein 70 (HSP70), was increased by 1.64 fold in ARVC failing hearts compared with non-failing hearts. The increase of cardiac HSP70 was further validated by Western blot, immunochemistry, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in failing hearts due to not only ARVC, but also dilated (DCM, n = 18) and ischemic cardiomyopathy (ICM, n = 8). Serum HSP70 was also observed to be significantly increased in heart failure patients derived from the three forms of cardiomyopathies. In addition, we observed hypoxia/serum depletion stimulation induced significantly elevation of intracellular and extracellular HSP70 in cultured neonatal rat cardiomyocytes. For the first time to our knowledge, we revealed and clearly demonstrated significant up-regulation of cardiac and serum HSP70 in ARVC heart failure patients. Our results indicate that elevated HSP70 is the common feature of heart failure due to ARVC, DCM, and ICM, which suggests that HSP70 may be used as a biomarker for the presence of heart failure due to cardiomyopathies of different etiologies and may hold diagnostic/prognostic potential in clinical practice.     

Circulating microparticles in patients with coronary heart disease and its correlation with interleukin-6 and C-reactive protein

Microparticles (MPs) are vesicles released from activated or apoptotic cells. MP derive from various cells, most notably platelets, but also leucocytes, lymphocytes, erythrocytes, and endothelial cells. The aim of this study was to investigate endothelial MP (EMP), platelet MP (PMP), lymphocyte MP and monocyte MP and TF-positive MPs (TF⁺ MPs) in patients with coronary heart disease (CHD), and to evaluate the correlation of these MPs with Interleukin-6 (IL-6) and C-reactive protein (CRP). Different cell-derived MPs and TF⁺ MPs were analyzed by flow cytometry in 40 patients with myocardial infarction (MI), 30 unstable angina (UA), 20 stable angina (SA) and 20 healthy individuals, and IL-6 and CRP were determined by ELISA and special protein analyzer, respectively. Compared with SA and control, EMP and PMP was significantly elevated in MI and UA (P < 0.001), and TF⁺ MPs was significantly elevated in MI and UA (P < 0.001). EMP and PMP correlated with IL-6 (r = 0.822, P < 0.001 and r = 0.567, P < 0.001; respectively) or CRP level (r = 0.597, P < 0.001 and r = 0.66, P < 0.001; respectively). Different cell-derived MPs in CHD may indicate the different pathophysiological changes in vessels, and MPs may both participate in the development of thrombosis and enhance the vascular inflammation.     

Chromosome numbers of the Australian Cymodoceaceae

The somatic chromosome numbers of the eleven Australian seagrass species belonging to five genera in the Family Cymodoceaceae were determined. The chromosome numbers in Amphibolis and Thalassodendron are reported for the first time. Cymodocea and Halodule species have the following chromosome numbers: Cymodocea angustata Ostenf., 2n = 14, 28; C. rotundata Ehrenb. & Hempr. ex Asch., 2n = 14; C. serrulata (R. Br.) Asch. & Magnus, 2n = 14, 28; Halodule pinifolia (Miki) den Hartog, 2n = 32; H. uninervis (Forsk.) Asch., 2n = 32; H. tridentata (Steinh.) Endl. ex Unger, 2n = 14. Halodule has the highest chromosome numbers among the seagrasses and they are the largest in sizes with a distinct bimodal type in the family. Syringodium isoetifolium (Asch.) Dandy has 2n = 20. Both endemic Amphibolis antarctica (Labill.) Sonder ex Asch. and A. griffithii (J. Black) den Hartog have 2n = ca. 36 and have the smallest chromosomes in the family appearing as small dots. Thalassodendron pachyrhizum den Hartog has 2n = 28. Chromosome numbers appear to be identical or closely related among different species in the same genus but they vary in the five genera in the Cymodoceaceae suggesting that these five genera may have evolved independently in the past.     

Comparative proteomic analysis of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Phalaenopsis</Emphasis> leaves in the vegetative and flowering phase

Phalaenopsis, an epiphytic crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plant, requires moderate variations of day/night temperatures for flowering. In this study, changes in chlorophyll content, chlorophyll fluorescence, sugar components, titratable acidity and soluble protein content in Phalaenopsis leaves during flowering were observed. Comparative proteomic analysis of Phalaenopsis leaves in the vegetative and flowering phase was performed for the first time using iTRAQ (isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantification). A total of 126 proteins were differentially expressed in Phalaenopsis leaves. Analysis of potential functions revealed that the major categories of predicted function of the up-regulated proteins were protein destination (27 %), photosynthesis (15.9 %), primary metabolism (14.3 %) and defense (12.7 %) in the flowering phase, while the major categories of predicted function of the down-regulated proteins were protein destination (33.3 %), primary metabolism (20.6 %), transportation (14.3 %) and signal transduction (11.1 %). Proteome profile analysis indicated that the proteome changes were consistent with changes in sugar and protein metabolites. Some novel proteins were differentially expressed, most of which were identified as signaling proteins, including 14-3-3 proteins, fibrillin, rapid alkalinization factors (RALF), the Ras-related protein RABB1c, calreticulin and calmodulin. Histone, importin alpha, multidrug resistance proteins and the ABC transporters were also differentially expressed. These results provide insights into the mechanisms that regulate flowering in complex flowering plants.