Tyrosine kinase-independent activation of extracellular-regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2 by the insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor

The extracellular-regulated kinase (ERK1/2) is a key conduit for transduction of signals from growth factor receptors to the nucleus. Previous work has shown that ERK1/2 activation in response to IGF-1 may require the participation of G proteins, but the role of the receptor tyrosine kinase in this process has not been clearly resolved. This investigation of IGF-1 receptor function was therefore designed to examine the contribution of the receptor tyrosine kinase to ERK1/2 activation. Phosphorylation of ERK1/2 in smooth muscle cells following treatment with IGF-1 was not blocked by pretreatment with AG1024 or picropodophylin, inhibitors of the IGF-1 receptor tyrosine kinase. Likewise, IGF-1 activated ERK1/2 in cells expressing a kinase-dead mutant of the IGF-1 receptor. ERK1/2 activation was unaffected by the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitor LY-294002, but was sensitive to inhibitors of Src kinase, phospholipase C and Gβγ subunit signalling. Treatment with αIR-3, a neutralizing monoclonal antibody, also stimulated ERK1/2 phosphorylation without concomitant activation of the receptor tyrosine kinase. Phosphoprotein mapping of IGF-1 and αIR-3 treated cells confirmed that antibody-induced ERK1/2 phosphorylation occurred in the absence of tyrosine kinase phosphorylation, and enabled extension of these findings to p38 MAPK. These results suggest that stimulation of ERK1/2 phosphorylation by IGF-1 does not require activation of the receptor tyrosine kinase.     

Inhibiting Src family tyrosine kinase activity blocks glutamate signalling to ERK1/2 and Akt/PKB but not JNK in cultured striatal neurones

Glutamate receptor activation of mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase signalling cascades has been implicated in diverse neuronal functions such as synaptic plasticity, development and excitotoxicity. We have previously shown that Ca2+-influx through NMDA receptors in cultured striatal neurones mediates the phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) and Akt/protein kinase B (PKB) through a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI 3-kinase)-dependent pathway. Exposing neurones to the Src family tyrosine kinase inhibitor PP2, but not the inactive analogue PP3, inhibited NMDA receptor-induced phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and Akt/PKB in a concentration-dependent manner, and reduced cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) phosphorylation. To establish a link between Src family tyrosine kinase-mediated phosphorylation and PI 3-kinase signalling, affinity precipitation experiments were performed with the SH2 domains of the PI 3-kinase regulatory subunit p85. This revealed a Src-dependent phosphorylation of a focal adhesion kinase (FAK)-p85 complex on glutamate stimulation. Demonstrating that PI3-kinase is not ubiquitously involved in NMDA receptor signal transduction, the PI 3-kinase inhibitors wortmannin and LY294002 did not prevent NMDA receptor Ca2+-dependent phosphorylation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase 1/2 (JNK1/2). Further, inhibiting Src family kinases increased NMDA receptor-dependent JNK1/2 phosphorylation, suggesting that Src family kinase-dependent cascades may physiologically limit signalling to JNK. These results demonstrate that Src family tyrosine kinases and PI3-kinase are pivotal regulators of NMDA receptor signalling to ERK/Akt and JNK in striatal neurones.     

Vanadium salts stimulate mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases and ribosomal S6 kinases

Effect of several vanadium salts, sodium orthovanadate, vanadyl sulfate and sodium metavanadate on protein tyrosine phosphorylation and serine/threonine kinases in chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells overexpressing a normal human insulin receptor was examined. All the compounds stimulated protein tyrosine phosphorylation of two major proteins with molecular masses of 42 kDa (p42) and 44 kDa (p44). The phosphorylation of p42 and p44 was associated with an activation of mitogen activated protein (MAP) kinase as well as increased protein tyrosine phosphorylation of p42^mapk and p44^mapk. Vanadinm salts also activated the 90 kDa ribosomal s6 kinase (p90^rsk) and 70 kDa ribosomal s6 kinase (p70^s6k). Among the three vanadium salts tested, vanadyl sulfate appeared to be slightly more potent than others in stimulating MAP kinases and p70^s6k activity. It is suggested that vanadium-induced activation of MAP kinases and ribosomal s6 kinases may be one of the mechanisms by which insulin like effects of this trace element are mediated.Abbreviations eIF-4 eukaryotic protein synthesis initiation factor-4 - GRB-2 growth factor receptor bound protein-2 - GSK-3 Glycogen Synthase Kinase-3 - IRS-1 insulin receptor substrate-1 - ISPK insulin stimulated protein kinase - MAPK mitogen activated protein kinase, also known as - ERK extracellular signal regulated kinase - MAPKK mitogen activated protein kinase kinase, also known as-MEK, MAPK or ERK kinase - PHAS-1 phosphorylated heat and acid stable protein regulated by insulin - PI3K phosphatidyl inositol 3-kinase - PP1-G protein phosphatase-glycogen bound form - PTK protein tyrosine kinase - PTPase protein tyrosine phosphatase - rsk ribosomal s6 kinases - shc src homology domain containing protein - SOS son of sevenless     

Dextran sulfate sodium enhances interleukin-1 beta release via activation of p38 MAPK and ERK1/2 pathways in murine peritoneal macrophages

Interleukin (IL)-1 beta is a pro-inflammatory cytokine that has been shown to play a pivotal role in the onset of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), however, the molecular mechanisms underlying the production of IL-1 beta in IBD are not fully understood. We investigated dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced IL-1 beta production and caspase-1 activities in murine peritoneal macrophages (pM phi). Further, the activation status of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2), and c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase (JNK1/2), as well as their upstream target kinases, were examined by Western blotting. In addition, mRNA expression was assessed by RT-PCR and CXC chemokine ligand 16 (CXCL16) protein was detected by immunocytochemistry. DSS-treated pM phi released IL-1 beta protein in a time-dependent manner without affecting mRNA levels during 3-24 h, and caspase-1 activity peaked at 5 min (29-fold). IL-1 beta release and caspase-1 activity induced by DSS were significantly inhibited by a MAPK kinase 1/2 inhibitor, a p38 MAPK inhibitor, and NAC, however, not by JNK1/2 or a protein kinase C inhibitor. In addition, DSS strikingly induced the phosphorylation of p38 MAPK and ERK1/2 within 2 and 10 min, respectively. DSS also induced intracellular generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Pre-treatment with anti-CXCL16 for 24 h, but not anti-scavenger receptor-A, anti-CD36, or anti-CD68 antibodies, significantly suppressed DSS-induced IL-1 beta production. Our results suggest that DSS triggers the release of IL-1 beta protein from murine pM phi at a post-translational level through binding with CXCL16, ROS generation, and resultant activation of both p38 MAPK and ERK1/2 pathways, and finally caspase-1 activation.     

The luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone inhibits the anti-apoptotic activity of insulin-like growth factor-1 in pituitary alphaT3 cells by protein kinase Calpha-mediated negative regulation of Akt

The luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) receptor is a G protein-coupled receptor involved in the synthesis and release of pituitary gonadotropins and in the proliferation and apoptosis of pituitary cells. Insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor (IGF-1R) is a tyrosine kinase receptor that has a mitogenic effect on pituitary cells. In this study, we used the alphaT3 gonadotrope cell line as a model to characterize the IGF-1R signaling pathways and to investigate whether this receptor interacts with the LHRH cascade. We found that IGF-1 activated the IGF-1R, insulin receptor substrate (IRS)-1, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, and Akt in a time-dependent manner in alphaT3 cells. The MAPK (ERK1/2, p38, and JNK) pathways were only weakly activated by IGF-1. In contrast, LHRH strongly stimulated the MAPK pathways but had no effect on Akt activation. Cotreatment with IGF-1 and LHRH had various effects on these signaling pathways. 1) It strongly increased IGF-1-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of IRS-1 and IRS-1-associated phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase through activation of the epidermal growth factor receptor. 2) It had an additive effect on ERK1/2 activation without modifying the phosphorylation of p38 and JNK1/2. 3) It strongly reduced IGF-1 activation of Akt. 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assays and cell cycle analysis revealed that, in addition to having an additive effect on ERK1/2 activation, cotreatment with IGF-1 and LHRH also had an additive effect on cell proliferation. The LHRH-induced inhibition of Akt stimulated by IGF-1 was completely blocked by Safingol, a protein kinase C (PKC) alpha-specific inhibitor, and by a dominant negative form of PKCalpha. Finally, we showed that the inhibitory effect of LHRH on IGF-1-induced PKCalpha-mediated Akt activation was associated with a marked reduction in Bad phosphorylation and a substantial decrease in the ability of IGF-1 to rescue alphaT3 cells from apoptosis induced by serum starvation. Our results demonstrate for the first time that several interactions take place between IGF-1 and LHRH receptors in gonadotrope cells.     

Involvement of PI3-kinase and its association with c-Src in PTH-stimulated rat enterocytes

Phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K) is a lipid kinase, which phosphorylates the D3 position of phosphoinositides, and is known to be activated by a host of protein tyrosine kinases. PI3K plays an important role in mitogenesis in several cell systems. However, whether parathyroid hormone (PTH) affects the activity and functional roles of PI3K in intestinal cells remain to be determined. The objective of this study was to identify and characterize the PI3K pathway, and its relation to other non-receptor tyrosine kinases in mediating PTH signal transduction in rat enterocytes. PTH dose- and time-dependently increased PI3K activity with a peak occurring at 2 min. The tyrosine kinase inhibitor genistein, c-Src inhibitor PP1 and two structurally different inhibitors of PI3K, LY294002 and wortmannin, suppressed PI3K activity dependent on PTH. Co-immunoprecipitation analysis showed a constitutive association between c-Src and PI3K, which was enhanced by PTH treatment, suggesting that the cytosolic tyrosine kinase forms an immunocomplex with PI3K probably via the N-SH2 domain of the p85alpha regulatory subunit. In response to PTH, tyrosine phosphorylation of p85alpha was enhanced, effect that was abolished by PP1, the inhibitor of c-Src kinase. PTH causes a rapid (0.5-5 min) phosphorylation of Akt/PKB, effect that was abrogated by PI3K inhibitors, indicating that in rat enterocytes, PI3K is an upstream mediator of Akt/PKB activation by PTH. We report here that PI3K is also required for PTH activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinases ERK1 and ERK2. Taken together, the present study demonstrate, for the first time, that PTH rapidly and transiently stimulates PI3K activity and its down effector Akt/PKB in rat enterocytes playing c-Src kinase a central role in PTH-dependent PI3K activation and that PI3K signaling pathway contributes to PTH-mediated MAPK activation.     

Somatostatin inhibits hepatic growth hormone receptor and insulin-like growth factor I mRNA expression by activating the ERK and PI3K signaling pathways

Previously, we reported that somatostatins (SS) inhibit organismal growth by reducing hepatic growth hormone (GH) sensitivity and by inhibiting insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) production. In this study, we used hepatocytes isolated from rainbow trout to elucidate the mechanism(s) associated with the extrapituitary growth-inhibiting actions of SS. SS-14, a predominant SS isoform, stimulated tyrosine phosphorylation of several endogenous proteins, including extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), a member the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family, and protein kinase B (Akt), a downstream target of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K). SS-14 specifically stimulated the phosphorylation of both ERK 1/2 and Akt in a concentration-dependent fashion. This activation occurred within 5-15 min, then subsided after 1 h. The ERK inhibitor U0126 retarded SS-14-stimulated phosphorylation of ERK 1/2, whereas the PI3K inhibitor LY294002 blocked SS-14-stimulated phosphorylation of Akt. SS-14-inhibited expression of GH receptor (GHR) mRNA was blocked by U0126 but not by LY294002. By contrast, U1026 had no effect on SS-14 inhibition of GH-stimulated IGF-I mRNA expression, whereas LY294002 partially blocked the inhibition of GH-stimulated IGF-I mRNA expression by SS-14. These results indicate that SS-14-inhibited GHR expression is mediated by the ERK signaling pathway and that the PI3K/Akt pathway mediates, at least in part, SS-14 inhibition of GH-stimulated IGF-I expression.     

Differential signaling mechanisms of HNP-induced IL-8 production in human lung epithelial cells and monocytes

Human neutrophil peptides (HNP) kill microorganisms but also modulate immune responses through upregulation of the chemokine IL-8 by activation of the nucleotide P2Y(6) receptor. However, the intracellular signaling mechanisms remain yet to be determined. Human lung epithelial cells (A549) and monocytes (U937) were stimulated with HNP in the absence and presence of the specific kinase inhibitors for Src, extracellular signal-regulated kinase-1 and -2 (ERK1/2), p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), c-Jun-N-terminal kinases (JNK), and Akt. HNP induced a rapid phosphorylation of the kinases in both cell types associated with a dose-dependent, selective production of IL-8 among 10 cytokines assayed. The HNP-induced IL-8 production was blocked by the Src tyrosine kinase inhibitor PP2, MEK1/2 inhibitor U0126, and the phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase (PI3K) inhibitor LY294002, but not by the JNK inhibitor SP600125 in both cell types. Treatment with the p38 inhibitor SB203580 attenuated the HNP-induced IL-8 production only in monocytes. Blockade of Src kinase blunted HNP-induced phosphorylation of the ERK1/2 and Akt but not p38 in monocytes. In contrast, Src inhibition had no effect on phosphorylation of the other kinases in the lung epithelial cells. We conclude that the activation of ERK1/2 and PI3K/Akt pathways is required for HNP-induced IL-8 release which occurs in a Src-independent manner in lung epithelial cells, while is Src-dependent in monocytes.     

Mechanical strain on osteoblasts activates autophosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase and proline-rich tyrosine kinase 2 tyrosine sites involved in ERK activation

The mechanisms involved in the mechanical loading-induced increase in bone formation remain unclear. In this study, we showed that cyclic strain (CS) (10 min, 1% stretch at 0.25 Hz) stimulated the proliferation of overnight serum-starved ROS 17/2.8 osteoblast-like cells plated on type I collagen-coated silicone membranes. This increase was blocked by MEK inhibitor PD-98059. Signaling events were then assessed 0 min, 30 min, and 4 h after one CS period with Western blotting and coimmunoprecipitation. CS rapidly and time-dependently promoted phosphorylation of both ERK2 at Tyr-187 and focal adhesion kinase (FAK) at Tyr-397 and Tyr-925, leading to the activation of the Ras/Raf/MEK pathway. Cell transfection with FAK mutated at Tyr-397 completely blocked ERK2 Tyr-187 phosphorylation. Quantitative immunofluorescence analysis of phosphotyrosine residues showed an increase in focal adhesion plaque number and size in strained cells. CS also induced both Src-Tyr-418 phosphorylation and Src to FAK association. Treatment with the selective Src family kinase inhibitor pyrazolopyrimidine 2 did not prevent CS-induced FAK-Tyr-397 phosphorylation suggesting a Src-independent activation of FAK. CS also activated proline-rich tyrosine kinase 2 (PYK2), a tyrosine kinase highly homologous to FAK, at the 402 phosphorylation site and promoted its association to FAK in a time-dependent manner. Mutation of PYK2 at the Tyr-402 site prevented the ERK2 phosphorylation only at 4 h. Intra and extracellular calcium chelators prevented PYK2 activation only at 4 h. In summary, our data showed that osteoblast response to mitogenic CS was mediated by MEK pathway activation. The latter was induced by ERK2 phosphorylation under the control of FAK and PYK2 phosphorylation orchestrated in a time-dependent manner.     

Cyclic AMP induces transactivation of the receptors for epidermal growth factor and nerve growth factor,thereby modulating activation of MAP kinase,Akt, and neurite outgrowth in PC12 cells

In PC12 cells, a well studied model for neuronal differentiation, an elevation in the intracellular cAMP level increases cell survival, stimulates neurite outgrowth, and causes activation of extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 1 and 2 (ERK1/2). Here we show that an increase in the intracellular cAMP concentration induces tyrosine phosphorylation of two receptor tyrosine kinases, i.e. the epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor and the high affinity receptor for nerve growth factor (NGF), also termed Trk(A). cAMP-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of the EGF receptor is rapid and correlates with ERK1/2 activation. It occurs also in Panc-1, but not in human mesangial cells. cAMP-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of the NGF receptor is slower and correlates with Akt activation. Inhibition of EGF receptor tyrosine phosphorylation, but not of the NGF receptor, reduces cAMP-induced neurite outgrowth. Expression of dominant-negative Akt does not abolish cAMP-induced survival in serum-free media, but increases cAMP-induced ERK1/2 activation and neurite outgrowth. Together, our results demonstrate that cAMP induces dual signaling in PC12 cells: transactivation of the EGF receptor triggering the ERK1/2 pathway and neurite outgrowth; and transactivation of the NGF receptor promoting Akt activation and thereby modulating ERK1/2 activation and neurite outgrowth.     

Regulation of EGF-induced ERK/MAPK activation and EGFR internalization by G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2

G protein-coupled receptor kinases （GRKs） mediate agonist-induced phosphorylation and desensitization of various G protein-coupled receptors （GPCRs）. We investigate the role of GRK2 on epidermal growth factor （EGF） receptor signaling, including EGF-induced extracellular signal-regulated kinase and mitogen-activated protein kinase （ERK/MAPK） activation and EGFR internalization. Immunoprecipitation and immunofluorescence experiments show that EGF stimulates GRK2 binding to EGFR complex and GRK2 translocating from cytoplasm to the plasma membrane in human embryonic kidney 293 cells. Western blotting assay shows that EGF-induced ERK/MAPK phosphorylation increases 1.9-fold, 1.1-fold and 1.5fold （P〈0.05） at time point 30, 60 and 120 min, respectively when the cells were transfected with GRK2,suggesting the regulatory role of GRK2 on EGF-induced ERK/MAPK activation. Flow cytometry experiments show that GRK2 overexpression has no effect on EGF-induced EGFR internalization, however, it increases agonist-induced G protein-coupled δ5 opioid receptor internalization by approximately 40% （P〈0.01）. Overall,these data suggest that GRK2 has a regulatory role in EGF-induced ERK/MAPK activation, and that the mechanisms underlying the modulatory role of GRK2 in EGFR and GPCR signaling pathways are somewhat different at least in receptor internalization.     

Activation of MAP kinase by muscarinic cholinergic receptors induces cell proliferation and protein synthesis in human breast cancer cells

Carbachol (Cch), a muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR) agonist, increases intracellular-free Ca(2+) mobilization and induces mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (MAPK/ERK) phosphorylation in MCF-7 human breast cancer cells. Pretreatment of cells with the selective phospholipase C (PLC) inhibitor U73122, or incubation of cells in a Ca(2+)-free medium did not alter Cch-stimulated MAPK/ERK phosphorylation. Phosphorylation of MAPK/ERK was mimicked by phorbol 12-myristate acetate (PMA), an activator of protein kinase C (PKC), but Cch-evoked MAPK/ERK activation was unaffected by down-regulation of PKC or by pretreatment of cells with GF109203X, a PKC inhibitor. However, Cch-stimulated MAPK/ERK phosphorylation was completely blocked by myristoylated PKC-zeta pseudosubstrate, a specific inhibitor of PKC-zeta, and high doses of staurosporine. Pretreatment of human breast cancer cells with wortmannin or LY294002, selective inhibitors of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), diminished Cch-mediated MAPK/ERK phosphorylation. Similar results were observed when MCF-7 cells were pretreated with genistein, a non-selective inhibitor of tyrosine kinases, or with the specific Src tyrosine kinase inhibitor PP2. Moreover, in MCF-7 human breast cancer cells mAChR stimulation induced an increase of protein synthesis and cell proliferation, and these effects were prevented by PD098059, a specific inhibitor of the mitogen activated kinase kinase. In conclusion, analyses of mAChR downstream effectors reveal that PKC-zeta, PI3K, and Src family of tyrosine kinases, but not intracellular-free Ca(2+) mobilization or conventional and novel PKC activation, are key molecules in the signal cascade leading to MAPK/ERK activation. In addition, MAPK/ERK are involved in the regulation of growth and proliferation of MCF-7 human breast cancer cells.     

Halofuginone inhibits Smad3 phosphorylation via the PI3K/Akt and MAPK/ERK pathways in muscle cells: Effect on myotube fusion

Halofuginone, a novel inhibitor of Smad3 phosphorylation, has been shown to inhibit muscle fibrosis and to improve cardiac and skeletal muscle functions in the mdx mouse model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Here, we demonstrate that halofuginone promotes the phosphorylation of Akt and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family members in a C2 muscle cell line and in primary myoblasts derived from wild-type and mdx mice diaphragms. Halofuginone enhanced the association of phosphorylated Akt and MAPK/extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK) with the non-phosphorylated form of Smad3, accompanied by a reduction in Smad3 phosphorylation levels. This reduction was reversed by inhibitors of the phosphoinositide 3′-kinase/Akt (PI3K/Akt) and MAPK/ERK pathways, suggesting their specific role in mediating halofuginone's inhibitory effect on Smad3 phosphorylation. Halofuginone enhanced Akt, MAPK/ERK and p38 MAPK phosphorylation and inhibited Smad3 phosphorylation in myotubes, all of which are crucial for myotube fusion. In addition, halofuginone increased the association Akt and MAPK/ERK with Smad3. As a consequence, halofuginone promoted myotube fusion, as reflected by an increased percentage of C2 and mdx myotubes containing high numbers of nuclei, and this was reversed by specific inhibitors of the PI3K and MAPK/ERK pathways. Together, the data suggest a role, either direct or via inhibition of Smad3 phosphorylation, for Akt or MAPK/ERK in halofuginone-enhanced myotube fusion, a feature which is crucial to improving muscle function in muscular dystrophies.     

EphB1 recruits c-Src and p52Shc to activate MAPK/ERK and promote chemotaxis

Eph receptors and their ligands (ephrins) play an important role in axonal guidance, topographic mapping, and angiogenesis. The signaling pathways mediating these activities are starting to emerge and are highly cell- and receptor-type specific. Here we demonstrate that activated EphB1 recruits the adaptor proteins Grb2 and p52Shc and promotes p52Shc and c-Src tyrosine phosphorylation as well as MAPK/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activation. EphB1-mediated increase of cell migration was abrogated by the MEK inhibitor PD98059 and Src inhibitor PP2. In contrast, cell adhesion, which we previously showed to be c-jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) dependent, was unaffected by ERK1/2 and Src inhibition. Expression of dominant-negative c-Src significantly reduced EphB1-dependent ERK1/2 activation and chemotaxis. Site-directed mutagenesis experiments demonstrate that tyrosines 600 and 778 of EphB1 are required for its interaction with c-Src and p52Shc. Furthermore, phosphorylation of p52Shc by c-Src is essential for its recruitment to EphB1 signaling complexes through its phosphotyrosine binding domain. Together these findings highlight a new aspect of EphB1 signaling, whereby the concerted action of c-Src and p52Shc activates MAPK/ERK and regulates events involved in cell motility.     

Comparative signaling pathways of insulin-like growth factor-1 and brain-derived neurotrophic factor in hippocampal neurons and the role of the PI3 kinase pathway in cell survival

Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) are trophic factors required for the viability and normal functions of various neuronal cells. However, the detailed intracellular mechanism(s) involved in these effects in neuronal cells remains to be fully elucidated. In present study, the respective intracellular signaling pathway induced by IGF-1 and BDNF and their possible role in neuronal survival were investigated. Both IGF-1 and BDNF protected hippocampal neurons from serum deprivation-induced death with IGF-1 apparently being more potent. Western blot analyses showed that both IGF-1 and BDNF induced the activation of the phosphatidylinositide 3 kinase (PI3)/Akt (protein kinase B) kinase and the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways. The phosphorylation of Akt and its downstream target, FKHRL1, induced by IGF-1 was rapid and sustained while that of MAPK was transient. The reverse situation was observed for BDNF. Moreover, IGF-1 potently induced the tyrosine phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1) and its association with PI3 kinase while BDNF was weak in these assays. In contrast, the tyrosine phosphorylation of Shc proteins was dramatically stimulated by BDNF, with IGF-1 having only a minimal effect. Most interestingly, only the inhibitor of the PI3K/Akt pathway, LY294002, was able to block the survival effects of both IGF-1 and BDNF; an inhibitor of the MAPK pathway inhibitor, PD98059, being ineffective. Taken together, these data reveal that the survival properties of both IGF-1 and BDNF against serum deprivation are mediated by the activation of the PI3K/Akt, but not the MAPK, pathway in hippocampal neurons.     

Activation of calcium-dependent kinases and epidermal growth factor receptor regulate muscarinic acetylcholine receptor-mediated MAPK/ERK activation in thyroid epithelial cells

We previously showed that stimulation of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChR) by carbachol (Cch) caused a time- and dose-dependent increase of mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinases (MAPK/ERK) phosphorylation in thyroid epithelial cells. In this study, we demonstrated that mAChR stimulation also induced a time-dependent increase in the tyrosine phosphorylation of proline-rich tyrosine kinase 2 (Pyk2), which was prevented by pretreatment of thyroid epithelial cells with the specific Src-family tyrosine kinase inhibitor PP2. Besides, phosphorylation of Pyk2 was attenuated by chelation of extracellular Ca(2+) or inhibition of phospholipase C (PLC), and was evoked by thapsigargin, a specific microsomal Ca(2+)-ATPase inhibitor. Incorporation of Pyk2 antisense oligonucleotides in thyroid epithelial cells to down-regulated Pyk2 expression or pretreatment of cells with the Ca(2+)/calmodulin protein kinase II (CaM kinase II) inhibitor KN-62 significantly reduced Cch-induced MAPK/ERK phosphorylation. In addition, Cch-induced MAPK/ERK phosphorylation was partially inhibited by LY294002 and wortmannin, two selective inhibitors of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), tyrphostin AG1478, a specific inhibitor of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) kinase, and (-)-perillic acid, a post-translational inhibitor of small G-proteins isoprenylation. Taken together, our data suggest that Pyk2, CaM kinase II and Src-family tyrosine kinases are key molecules for the activation of MAPK/ERK cascade through the EGFR/Ras/Raf pathway in thyroid epithelial cells in response to mAChR stimulation.     

Involvement of Src family tyrosine kinase in apoptosis of human neutrophils induced by protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica

Tyrosine kinases are one of the most important regulators for intracellular signal transduction related to inflammatory responses. However, there are no reports describing the effects of tyrosine kinases on neutrophil apoptosis induced by Entamoeba histolytica. In this study, isolated human neutrophils from peripheral blood were incubated with live trophozoites in the presence or absence of tyrosine kinase inhibitors. Entamoeba-induced receptor shedding of CD16 and PS externalization in neutrophils were inhibited by pre-incubation of neutrophils with the broad-spectrum tyrosine kinase inhibitor genistein or the Src family kinase inhibitor PP2. Entamoeba-induced ROS production was also inhibited by genistein or PP2. Moreover, genistein and PP2 blocked the phosphorylation of ERK and p38 MAPK in neutrophils induced by E. histolytica. These results suggest that Src tyrosine kinases may participate in the signaling event for ROS-dependent activation of MAPKs during neutrophil apoptosis induced by E. histolytica.     

Singlet oxygen-induced attenuation of growth factor signaling: possible role of ceramides

Singlet oxygen, an electronically excited form of molecular oxygen, is a primary mediator of the activation of stress-activated protein kinases elicited by ultraviolet A (UVA; 320-400 nm). Here, the effects of singlet oxygen (₁O₂) on the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2 and Akt/protein kinase B pathways were analyzed in human dermal fibroblasts. While basal ERK 1/2 phosphorylation was lowered in cells exposed to either ₁O₂, UVA or photodynamic treatment, Akt was moderately activated by photochemically generated ₁O₂ in a phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)-dependent fashion, resulting in the phosphorylation of glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK3). The activation of ERK 1/2 and Akt as induced by stimulation with epidermal growth factor (EGF) or platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) was inhibited by ₁O₂ generated intracellularly upon photoexcitation of rose Bengal (RB). Photodynamic therapy (PDT)-induced apoptosis is known to be associated with increased formation of ceramides. Likewise, both ₁O₂ and UVA induced ceramide generation in human skin fibroblasts. The attenuation of EGF- and PDGF-induced activation of ERK 1/2 and Akt by ₁O₂ was mimicked by stimulation of fibroblasts with the cell-permeable C₂-ceramide. Interestingly, EGF-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of the EGF receptor was strongly attenuated by ₁O₂ but unimpaired by C₂-ceramide, implying that, although ceramide formation may mediate the above attenuation of ERK and Akt phosphorylation induced by ₁O₂, mechanisms beyond ceramide formation exist that mediate impairment of growth factor signaling by singlet oxygen. In summary, these data point to a novel mechanism of ₁O₂ toxicity: the known ₁O₂-induced activation of proapoptotic kinases such as JNK and p38 is paralleled by the prevention of activation of growth factor receptor-dependent signaling and of anti-apoptotic kinases, thus shifting the balance towards apoptosis.