Effects of adenosine on ventilatory responses to hypoxia and hypercapnia in humans

Adenosine infusion (100 micrograms X kg-1 X min-1) in humans stimulates ventilation but also causes abdominal and chest discomfort. To exclude the effects of symptoms and to differentiate between a central and peripheral site of action, we measured the effect of adenosine infused at a level (70-80 micrograms X kg-1 X min-1) below the threshold for symptoms. Resting ventilation (VE) and progressive ventilatory responses to isocapnic hypoxia and hyperoxic hypercapnia were measured in six normal men. Compared with a control saline infusion given single blind on the same day, adenosine stimulated VE [mean increase: 1.3 +/- 0.8 (SD) l/min; P less than 0.02], lowered resting end-tidal PCO2 (PETCO2) (mean fall: -3.9 +/- 0.9 Torr), and increased heart rate (mean increase: 16.1 +/- 8.1 beats/min) without changing systemic blood pressure. Adenosine increased the hypoxic ventilatory response (control: -0.68 +/- 0.4 l X min-1 X %SaO2-1, where %SaO2 is percent of arterial O2 saturation; adenosine: -2.40 +/- 1.2 l X min-1 X %SaO2-1; P less than 0.01) measured at a mean PETCO2 of 38.3 +/- 0.6 Torr but did not alter the hypercapnic response. This differential effect suggests that adenosine may stimulate ventilation by a peripheral rather than a central action and therefore may be involved in the mechanism of peripheral chemoreception.     

Airway effects of purine nucleosides and nucleotides and release with bronchial provocation in asthma

Adenosine, AMP, and ADP all caused similar concentration-related bronchoconstriction when inhaled by patients with asthma, whereas the adenosine hydrolysis product inosine had no effect. Geometric mean provocation concentrations of adenosine AMP and ADP causing a 20% fall in forced expiratory volume in 1 s (PCf20) were 2.34, 4.27, and 2.19 mumol/ml and 40% fall in specific airway conductance (PCs40) 3.16, 5.01, and 2.0 mumol/ml. Bronchoconstriction was rapid in onset, reaching a maximum 2-5 min after a single inhalation of AMP. In 31 asthmatic subjects a positive correlation was established between airway responsiveness to histamine, as an index of non-specific responsiveness, and airway reactivity to adenosine (PCf20, r = 0.60; PCs40, r = 0.64; P less than 0.01). Following bronchial provocation with allergen in nine subjects, plasma levels of adenosine increased from a mean base line of 5.4 +/- 0.9 to 9.6 +/- 2.0 ng/ml at 15 min (P less than 0.01) in parallel with a fall in forced expiratory volume in 1 s. With methacholine provocation bronchoconstriction reached maximum 2-5 min postchallenge being followed by, but not accompanied by, significant increases in plasma levels of adenosine. These data suggest that adenosine is a specific bronchoconstrictor that may contribute to airflow obstruction in asthma.     

Adrenergic airway vascular smooth muscle responsiveness in healthy and asthmatic subjects.

The purpose of the present study was to determine the responsiveness of airway vascular smooth muscle (AVSM) as assessed by airway mucosal blood flow (Qaw) to inhaled methoxamine (alpha(1)-agonist; 0.6-2.3 mg) and albuterol (beta(2)-agonist; 0.2-1.2 mg) in healthy [n = 11; forced expiratory volume in 1 s, 92 +/- 4 (SE) % of predicted] and asthmatic (n = 11, mean forced expiratory volume in 1 s, 81 +/- 5%) adults. Mean baseline values for Qaw were 43.8 +/- 0.7 and 54.3 +/- 0.8 microl. min(-1). ml(-1) of anatomic dead space in healthy and asthmatic subjects, respectively (P < 0.05). After methoxamine inhalation, the maximal mean change in Qaw was -13.5 +/- 1.0 microl. min(-1). ml(-1) in asthmatic and -7.1 +/- 2.1 microl. min(-1). ml(-1) in healthy subjects (P < 0.05). After albuterol, the mean maximal change in Qaw was 3.0 +/- 0.8 microl. min(-1). ml(-1) in asthmatic and 14.0 +/- 1.1 microl. min(-1). ml(-1) in healthy subjects (P < 0.05). These results demonstrate that the contractile response of AVSM to alpha(1)-adrenoceptor activation is enhanced and the dilator response of AVSM to beta(2)-adrenoceptor activation is blunted in asthmatic subjects.     

Capsaicin-induced bronchodilation in mild asthmatic subjects: possible role of nonadrenergic inhibitory system

We investigated whether stimulation of vagal afferent nerve fibers with inhaled capsaicin could induce a nonadrenergic inhibitory reflex in nine mild asthmatic subjects. Changes in total respiratory resistance (Rrs) were measured with a forced oscillation technique. First we induced a rise of 71 +/- 15% in Rrs (P less than 0.001) after leukotriene D4 aerosol. Subsequent inhalation of capsaicin (2 nmol) caused no significant change in mean Rrs of -1.1 +/- 8.2%. After the muscarinic receptor antagonist ipratropium bromide (120 micrograms) was inhaled, leukotriene D4 increased Rrs by 103 +/- 9% (P less than 0.001). Capsaicin subsequently caused bronchodilation in all subjects (Rrs = -22.3 +/- 2.7%, P less than 0.001). Ethanol-saline (diluent) alone caused a nonsignificant fall in Rrs (-9.9 +/- 4.7%) but a deep breath and coughing resulted in bronchodilation (-16.9 +/- 6.1%, P less than 0.05 and -11.6 +/- 2.9%, P less than 0.01, respectively). As observed in normal subjects, capsaicin may initiate an inhibitory reflex, presumably of nonadrenergic origin. This reflex could not be distinguished from that caused by coughing or by deep inhalation. A defect in nonadrenergic mechanisms, at least in mild asthma, seems unlikely.     

Tachyphylaxis to inhaled histamine in asthmatic subjects

The bronchoconstriction induced by repeated histamine inhalation tests was studied in eight mild stable asthmatic subjects to determine whether histamine tachyphylaxis occurs in asthmatics. We also studied the specificity of histamine tachyphylaxis by examining for tachyphylaxis in response to inhaled acetylcholine in these subjects. We subsequently investigated whether indomethacin pretreatment inhibited histamine tachyphylaxis. Tachyphylaxis in response to inhaled histamine occurred in all subjects. The mean histamine provocative concentration causing a 20% fall in the forced expiratory volume in 1 s (PC20) increased from 3.04 +/- 1.9 (%SD), to 4.88 +/- 1.9, and to 6.53 +/- 2.2 mg/ml (P less than 0.0005) with successive inhalation tests. Tachyphylaxis was still present at 3 h (P less than 0.01), but not in all subjects at 6 h (P greater than 0.05). Tachyphylaxis, however, did not occur in response to inhaled acetylcholine. In addition, indomethacin pretreatment prevented histamine tachyphylaxis. Thus this study demonstrates that there is a histamine-specific mechanism that can partially protect the airways against repeated bronchoconstriction caused by histamine. This effect may occur through the release of inhibitory prostaglandins in the airway after histamine stimulation. Also when histamine inhalation tests are repeated on the same day, the tests should be separated by greater than 6 h to avoid tachyphylaxis.     

Atrial natriuretic factor attenuates the pulmonary pressor response to hypoxia

The influence of endogenous and exogenous atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) on pulmonary hemodynamics was investigated in anesthetized pigs during both normoxia and hypoxia. Continuous hypoxic ventilation with 11% O2 was associated with a uniform but transient increase of plasma immunoreactive (ir) ANF that peaked at 15 min. Plasma irANF was inversely related to pulmonary arterial pressure (Ppa; r = -0.66, P less than 0.01) and pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR; r = -0.56, P less than 0.05) at 30 min of hypoxia in 14 animals; no such relationship was found during normoxia. ANF infusion after 60 min of hypoxia in seven pigs reduced the 156 +/- 20% increase in PVR to 124 +/- 18% (P less than 0.01) at 0.01 microgram.kg-1.min-1 and to 101 +/- 15% (P less than 0.001) at 0.05 microgram.kg-1.min-1. Cardiac output (CO) and systemic arterial pressure (Psa) remained unchanged, whereas mean Ppa decreased from 25.5 +/- 1.5 to 20.5 +/- 15 mmHg (P less than 0.001) and plasma irANF increased two- to nine-fold. ANF infused at 0.1 microgram.kg-1.min-1 (resulting in a 50-fold plasma irANF increase) decreased Psa (-14%) and reduced CO (-10%); systemic vascular resistance (SVR) was not changed, nor was a further decrease in PVR induced. No change in PVR or SVR occurred in normoxic animals at any ANF infusion rate. These results suggest that ANF may act as an endogenous pulmonary vasodilator that could modulate the pulmonary pressor response to hypoxia.     

Influence of lung volume on oxygen cost of resistive breathing

We examined the relationship between the O2 cost of breathing (VO2 resp) and lung volume at constant load, ventilation, work rate, and pressure-time product in five trained normal subjects breathing through an inspiratory resistance at functional residual capacity (FRC) and when lung volume (VL) was increased to 37 +/- 2% (mean +/- SE) of inspiratory capacity (high VL). High VL was maintained using continuous positive airway pressure of 9 +/- 2 cmH2O and with the subjects coached to relax during expiration to minimize respiratory muscle activity. Six paired runs were performed in each subject at constant tidal volume (0.62 +/- 0.2 liters), frequency (23 +/- 1 breaths/min), inspiratory flow rate (0.45 +/- 0.1 l/s), and inspiratory muscle pressure (45 +/- 2% of maximum static pressure at FRC). VO2 resp increased from 109 +/- 15 ml/min at FRC by 41 +/- 11% at high VL (P less than 0.05). Thus the efficiency of breathing at high VL (3.9 +/- 0.2%) was less than that at FRC (5.2 +/- 0.3%, P less than 0.01). The decrease in inspiratory muscle efficiency at high VL may be due to changes in mechanical coupling, in the pattern of recruitment of the respiratory muscles, or in the intrinsic properties of the inspiratory muscles at shorter length. When the work of breathing at high VL was normalized for the decrease in maximum inspiratory muscle pressure with VL, efficiency at high VL (5.2 +/- 0.3%) did not differ from that at FRC (P less than 0.7), suggesting that the fall in efficiency may have been related to the fall in inspiratory muscle strength. During acute hyperinflation the decreased efficiency contributes to the increased O2 cost of breathing and may contribute to the diminished inspiratory muscle endurance.     

The effect of training on responses of beta-endorphin and other pituitary hormones to insulin-induced hypoglycemia

We studied whether the previously reported intensified beta-endorphin response to exercise after training might result from a training-induced general increase in anterior pituitary secretory capacity. Identical hypoglycemia was induced by insulin infusion in 7 untrained (VO2max 49 +/- 4 ml X (kg X min)-1, mean and SE) and 8 physically trained (VO2max 65 +/- 4 ml X (kg X min)-1) subjects. In response to hypoglycemia, levels of beta-endorphin and prolactin immunoreactivity in serum increased similarly in trained (from 41 +/- 2 pg X ml-1 and 6 +/- 1 pg X ml-1 before hypoglycemia to 103 +/- 11 pg X ml-1 and 43 +/- 9 pg X ml-1 during recovery, P less than 0.05) and untrained (from 35 +/- 7 pg X ml-1 and 7 +/- 2 pg X ml-1 to 113 +/- 18 pg X ml-1 and 31 +/- 8 pg X ml-1, P less than 0.05) subjects. Growth hormone (GH) was higher 90 min after glucose nadir in trained (61 +/- 13 mU X l-1) than in untrained (25 +/- 6 mU X l-1) subjects (P less than 0.05). Levels of thyrotropin (TSH) changed in neither of the groups. It is concluded that, in contrast to what has been formerly proposed, training does not result in a general increase in secretory capacity of the anterior pituitary gland. TSH responds to hypoglycemia neither in trained nor in untrained subjects. Finally, differences in beta-endorphin responses to exercise between trained and untrained subjects cannot be ascribed to differences in responsiveness to hypoglycemia.     

Evaluation of pulmonary resistance and maximal expiratory flow measurements during exercise in humans.

To evaluate methods used to document changes in airway function during and after exercise, we studied nine subjects with exercise-induced asthma and five subjects without asthma. Airway function was assessed from measurements of pulmonary resistance (RL) and forced expiratory vital capacity maneuvers. In the asthmatic subjects, forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1) fell 24 +/- 14% and RL increased 176 +/- 153% after exercise, whereas normal subjects experienced no change in airway function (RL -3 +/- 8% and FEV1 -4 +/- 5%). During exercise, there was a tendency for FEV1 to increase in the asthmatic subjects but not in the normal subjects. RL, however, showed a slight increase during exercise in both groups. Changes in lung volumes encountered during exercise were small and had no consistent effect on RL. The small increases in RL during exercise could be explained by the nonlinearity of the pressure-flow relationship and the increased tidal breathing flows associated with exercise. In the asthmatic subjects, a deep inspiration (DI) caused a small, significant, transient decrease in RL 15 min after exercise. There was no change in RL in response to DI during exercise in either asthmatic or nonasthmatic subjects. When percent changes in RL and FEV1 during and after exercise were compared, there was close agreement between the two measurements of change in airway function. In the groups of normal and mildly asthmatic subjects, we conclude that changes in lung volume and DIs had no influence on RL during exercise. Increases in tidal breathing flows had only minor influence on measurements of RL during exercise. Furthermore, changes in RL and in FEV1 produce equivalent indexes of the variations in airway function during and after exercise.     

Gas exchange during exercise in habitually active asthmatic subjects.

We determined the relations among gas exchange, breathing mechanics, and airway inflammation during moderate- to maximum-intensity exercise in asthmatic subjects. Twenty-one habitually active (48.2 +/- 7.0 ml.kg(-1).min(-1) maximal O2 uptake) mildly to moderately asthmatic subjects (94 +/- 13% predicted forced expiratory volume in 1.0 s) performed treadmill exercise to exhaustion (11.2 +/- 0.15 min) at approximately 90% of maximal O2 uptake. Arterial O2 saturation decreased to < or =94% during the exercise in 8 of 21 subjects, in large part as a result of a decrease in arterial Po2 (PaO2): from 93.0 +/- 7.7 to 79.7 +/- 4.0 Torr. A widened alveolar-to-arterial Po2 difference and the magnitude of the ventilatory response contributed approximately equally to the decrease in PaO2 during exercise. Airflow limitation and airway inflammation at baseline did not correlate with exercise gas exchange, but an exercise-induced increase in sputum histamine levels correlated with exercise Pa(O2) (negatively) and alveolar-to-arterial Po2 difference (positively). Mean pulmonary resistance was high during exercise (3.4 +/- 1.2 cmH2O.l(-1).s) and did not increase throughout exercise. Expiratory flow limitation occurred in 19 of 21 subjects, averaging 43 +/- 35% of tidal volume near end exercise, and end-expiratory lung volume rose progressively to 0.25 +/- 0.47 liter greater than resting end-expiratory lung volume at exhaustion. These mechanical constraints to ventilation contributed to a heterogeneous and frequently insufficient ventilatory response; arterial Pco2 was 30-47 Torr at end exercise. Thus pulmonary gas exchange is impaired during high-intensity exercise in a significant number of habitually active asthmatic subjects because of high airway resistance and, possibly, a deleterious effect of exercise-induced airway inflammation on gas exchange efficiency.     

Peptide mediator effects on bronchial blood velocity and lung resistance in conscious sheep.

Peptide mediators or neuropeptides released from sensory nerves may induce inflammatory effects in airways, but their effects on airway blood velocity and lung resistance have not been previously studied simultaneously in awake animals. Nine adult sheep were chronically prepared for continuous measurement of blood flow velocity to the distal trachea and bronchi by surgical implantation of a 20-MHz pulsed Doppler flow probe on the common bronchial branch of the bronchoesophageal artery. Awake restrained animals were intubated and connected to a pneumotachograph to measure resistance to airflow across the lung (RL). Doubling doses of bradykinin (BK, 0.02-1.51 nmol/kg), calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP, 0.004-0.26 nmol/kg), or substance P (SP, 0.02-1.19 nmol/kg) were injected as a bolus into the right atrium while mean arterial pressure (MAP), bronchial blood velocity (Vbr), and RL were measured. BK at 0.76 nmol/kg caused a transient dose-related increase in Vbr from a baseline of 19.3 +/- 2.5 to 41.4 +/- 4.1 (SE) cm/s (P less than 0.05) despite a decrease in MAP from 118 +/- 6 to 80 +/- 6 mmHg. CGRP at 0.26 nmol/kg caused a transient dose-related increase in Vbr from 16.8 +/- 2.7 to 25.3 +/- 4.7 cm/s (P less than 0.05) despite a decrease in MAP from 113 +/- 5 to 87 +/- 8 mmHg. Neither BK nor CGRP affected RL. SP at 1.19 nmol/kg transiently increased Vbr from 18.3 +/- 2.3 to 45.1 +/- 8.3 cm/s (P less than 0.05), MAP from 138 +/- 9 to 162 +/- 15 mmHg, and RL from 4.5 +/- 1.0 to 106.6 +/- 62.1 cmH2O.l-1.s.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Integrated response of the upper and lower respiratory tract of asthmatic subjects to frigid air.

To evaluate the influence of cold air hyperpnea on integrated upper and lower airway behavior, 22 asthmatic volunteers hyperventilated through their mouths (OHV) and noses (NHV) while pulmonary and nasal function were determined individually and in combination. In the isolated studies, OHV at a minute ventilation of 65 +/- 3 l/min lowered the 1-s forced expiratory volume (FEV(1)) 24 +/- 2% (P < 0. 001) and NHV (40 l/min) induced a 31 +/- 9% (P < 0.001) increase in nasal resistance (NR). In the combined studies, oral hyperpnea reduced the FEV(1) (DeltaFEV(1) 26 +/- 2%, P < 0.001) and evoked a significant rise in NR (DeltaNR 26 +/- 9%, P = 0.01). In contrast, NHV only affected the upper airway. NR rose 33 +/- 9% (P = 0.01), but airway caliber did not change (DeltaFEV(1) 2%, P = 0.27). The results of this investigation demonstrate that increasing the transfer of heat and water in the lower respiratory tract alters bronchial and nasal function in a linked fashion. Forcing the nose to augment its heat-exchanging activity, however, reduces nasal caliber but has no effect on the intrathoracic airways.     

Inhaled PAF stimulates leukotriene and thromboxane A2 production in humans.

Platelet-activating factor (PAF) is a potent bronchoconstrictor in humans and has been implicated as an inflammatory mediator in asthma. This study was performed to evaluate whether PAF-induced bronchoconstriction in vivo could be mediated through the release of the bronchoconstrictor eicosanoids, thromboxane (Tx) A2 and the cysteinyl leukotrienes. Ten asthmatic subjects were studied on three occasions after bronchial challenges with aerosolized PAF, methacholine, or isotonic saline. PAF caused bronchoconstriction in all 10 subjects (mean maximal percent fall in specific airway conductance 48.2 +/- 4.6) and was matched by methacholine challenge. Saline caused no changes in specific airway conductance. Urinary leukotriene E4 was significantly elevated after inhaled PAF (366.0 +/- 66.9 ng/mmol creatinine, P less than 0.01) compared with methacholine (41.6 +/- 13.3) and saline (33.6 +/- 4.6). The major urinary TxA2 metabolite 2,3-dinor TxB2 was elevated after inhaled PAF (41.3 +/- 7.1 ng/mmol creatinine, P less than 0.01) compared with methacholine (14.0 +/- 2.7) and saline (17.1 +/- 3.9). Urinary 2,3-dinor 6-oxo-prostaglandin F1 alpha after PAF (22.2 +/- 1.4) was raised with respect to the methacholine challenge (13.9 +/- 1.8, P less than 0.02), although no significant increase was observed compared with the saline control (18.6 +/- 3.3). Inhaled PAF leads to the secondary generation of cysteinyl leukotrienes and TxA2, and it is possible that these mediate some of the acute effects of inhaled PAF in vivo.     

Effect of raised alveolar pressure on leukocyte retention in the human lung

To determine whether an increase in alveolar pressure delays the passage of leukocytes (WBCs) through the lung by compressing the lung capillaries, we measured the concentration of WBC across the lung in response to a forced expiratory maneuver. In 20 human subjects, blood was sampled from catheters placed in the pulmonary artery (PA) and left ventricle (LV) before, during, and after a forced expiratory maneuver held for greater than or equal to 20 s against an occluded airway. Pressures were recorded at the mouth and from both catheters. A significant fall in LV WBC (P less than 0.01) but not in PA WBC occurred during or immediately after the maneuver in 18 subjects, with a mean maximum decrease of 26 +/- 12% (SD) from base line (range 9-46%). Between 1 and 3 min after the maneuver, there was an increase in LV and PA WBC (P less than 0.01) above base line. The neutrophil and lymphocyte counts showed similar changes, but erythrocyte and platelet counts remained unchanged. The degree of fall in LV WBC correlated closely (r = 0.68, P less than 0.01) with the changes from lung zone 3 to zone 2 and 1 conditions, as determined from the pressure changes. We conclude that WBCs are retained in the lung during a forced expiratory maneuver because of alveolar capillary compression.     

Airway diffusing capacity of nitric oxide and steroid therapy in asthma.

Exhaled nitric oxide (NO) concentration is a noninvasive index for monitoring lung inflammation in diseases such as asthma. The plateau concentration at constant flow is highly dependent on the exhalation flow rate and the use of corticosteroids and cannot distinguish airway and alveolar sources. In subjects with steroid-naive asthma (n = 8) or steroid-treated asthma (n = 12) and in healthy controls (n = 24), we measured flow-independent NO exchange parameters that partition exhaled NO into airway and alveolar regions and correlated these with symptoms and lung function. The mean (+/-SD) maximum airway flux (pl/s) and airway tissue concentration [parts/billion (ppb)] of NO were lower in steroid-treated asthmatic subjects compared with steroid-naive asthmatic subjects (1,195 +/- 836 pl/s and 143 +/- 66 ppb compared with 2,693 +/- 1,687 pl/s and 438 +/- 312 ppb, respectively). In contrast, the airway diffusing capacity for NO (pl.s-1.ppb-1) was elevated in both asthmatic groups compared with healthy controls, independent of steroid therapy (11.8 +/- 11.7, 8.71 +/- 5.74, and 3.13 +/- 1.57 pl.s-1.ppb-1 for steroid treated, steroid naive, and healthy controls, respectively). In addition, the airway diffusing capacity was inversely correlated with both forced expired volume in 1 s and forced vital capacity (%predicted), whereas the airway tissue concentration was positively correlated with forced vital capacity. Consistent with previously reported results from Silkoff et al. (Silkoff PE, Sylvester JT, Zamel N, and Permutt S, Am J Respir Crit Med 161: 1218-1228, 2000) that used an alternate technique, we conclude that the airway diffusing capacity for NO is elevated in asthma independent of steroid therapy and may reflect clinically relevant changes in airways.     

Fluctuation in responsiveness of LH and lack of responsiveness of FSH to prolonged infusion of morphine and naloxone in the ewe

In ewes in the mid-luteal phase, LH pulse frequency (P less than 0.01) and amplitude (P less than 0.05) increased during a 24 h infusion of naloxone (0.5 mg/kg/h) compared to a 24 h infusion of vehicle (mean +/- s.e.m.; 0.25 +/- 0.03 vs 0.14 +/- 0.01 pulses/h and 0.84 +/- 0.08 vs 0.55 +/- 0.08 ng/ml serum, respectively). The increase in pulse amplitude was immediate, but was less (P less than 0.05) during the second 12 h, compared to the first 12 h, of naloxone infusion (0.52 +/- 0.14 vs 0.98 +/- 0.08 ng/ml serum). Oestradiol concentrations were higher (P less than 0.01) during naloxone than during control infusion (5.63 +/- 0.26 vs 4.13 +/- 0.15 pg/ml serum). In ovariectomized ewes in the breeding season, LH pulse frequency was lower (P less than 0.01) during a 24 h infusion of morphine (0.5 mg/kg/h) than during a 24 h infusion of vehicle (mean +/- s.e.m.; 1.17 +/- 0.08 vs 1.71 +/- 0.06 pulses/h). We conclude that long-term infusion of naloxone results in a sustained increase in LH pulse frequency but only a transient elevation in pulse amplitude. No effects on FSH secretion were noted. LH secretion was sensitive to morphine in the absence of ovarian steroids, suggesting that ovarian steroids are not required for the presence of functional opioid receptors capable of modulating LH release.     

Canine bronchoconstriction, gas trapping, and hypoxia with methacholine

The effects of an intravenous methacholine infusion on cardiovascular-pulmonary function were measured in seven mongrel dogs (22.0 +/- 2.8 kg), anesthetized with chloralose and urethan and beta-adrenergically blocked with propranolol. In a volume-displacement plethysmograph, physiological measurements were made at base line and 25 min after establishing a methacholine infusion (0.1-1.0 mg X kg-1 X h-1). Methacholine significantly (P less than 0.05) increased airways resistance (1.9 +/- 0.8 to 8.2 +/- 2.9 cmH2O X l-1 X s), decreased static lung compliance (84.7 +/- 18.5 to 48.2 +/- 9.4 ml/cmH2O), depressed arterial PO2 (81 +/- 17 to 56 +/- 10 Torr), and lowered blood pressure (132 +/- 10 to 69 +/- 18 Torr) and cardiac output (5.7 +/- 1.9 to 4.1 +/- 1.2 l/min). These effects persisted during a further 80 min of methacholine infusion conducted in five of the animals. During the initial 25-min period of methacholine, the end-expired volume (volume-displacement Krogh spirometer) rose in all animals, indicating an increase in functional residual capacity from 997 +/- 115 to 1,623 +/- 259 ml (P less than 0.0005). Analysis of pulmonary pressure-volume curves revealed no change in total lung capacity but an increase in residual volume from 489 +/- 168 to 1,106 +/- 216 ml (P less than 0.001). Thus methacholine caused 617 ml of gas trapping, which was not detected by the Boyle's law principle, presumably because gas was trapped at high transpulmonary pressure. We suggest that intravenous methacholine-induced canine bronchoconstriction, which causes gas trapping and hypoxia, may be a useful animal model of clinical status asthmaticus.     

Deep breath reversal and exponential return of methacholine-induced obstruction in asthmatic and nonasthmatic subjects.

A deep breath (DB) during induced obstruction results in a transient reversal with a return to pre-DB levels in both asthmatic and nonasthmatic subjects. The time course of this transient recovery has been reported to be exponential by one group but linear by another group. In the present study, we estimated airway resistance (Raw) from measurements of respiratory system transfer impedance before and after a DB. Nine healthy subjects and nine asthmatic subjects were studied at their maximum response during a methacholine challenge. In all subjects, the DB resulted in a rapid decrease in Raw, which then returned to pre-DB levels. This recovery was well fit with a monoexponential function in both groups, and the time constant was significantly smaller in the asthmatic than the nonasthmatic subjects (11.6 +/- 5.0 and 35.1 +/- 15.9 s, respectively). Obstruction was completely reversed in the nonasthmatic subjects (pre- and postchallenge mean Raw immediately after the DB were 2.03 +/- 0.66 and 2.06 +/- 0.68 cmH2O.l-1.s, respectively), whereas in the asthmatic subjects complete reversal did not occur (2.29 +/- 0.78 and 4.84 +/- 2.64 cmH2O.l-1.s, respectively). Raw after the DB returned to postchallenge, pre-DB values in the nonasthmatic subjects (3.78 +/- 1.56 and 3.97 +/- 1.63 cmH2O.l-1.s, respectively), whereas in the asthmatic subjects it was higher but not significantly so (9.19 +/- 4.95 and 7.14 +/- 3.56 cmH2O.l-1.s, respectively). The monoexponential recovery suggests a first-order process such as airway wall-parenchymal tissue interdependence or renewed constriction of airway smooth muscle.     

Catecholamines and pituitary function. VI. Effect of different dopamine doses on TRH-induced prolactin release in women with pathological hyperprolactinemia

The present study was designed to examine the effect of low-dose dopamine (DA) infusion rates (0.02 and 0.1 microgram/kg X min) on both basal and TRH-stimulated prolactin release in normal and hyperprolactinemic individuals. Sixteen normally menstruating women in the early follicular phase of a cycle and 23 hyperprolactinemic patients were studied. 0.1 microgram/kg X min DA was infused in 8 normal women and 15 patients with pathological hyperprolactinemia, while 8 normal controls and 8 patients received 0.02 microgram/kg X min DA TRH (200 micrograms, i.v.) was administered alone and at the 180th min of the 5-hour DA infusion in all controls and patients. A significant reduction in serum PRL levels, which was similar in normal women (-59.5 +/- 4.0%, mean +/- SE) and hyperprolactinemic patients (-48.2 +/- 5.5) was observed in response to 0.1 microgram/kg X min DA. In normal cycling women DA infusion significantly (P less than 0.02) reduced the PRL response to TRH with respect to the basal TRH test (delta PRL 45.0 +/- 7.0 vs. 77.9 +/- 15.4 ng/ml). On the contrary, the PRL response to TRH was significantly higher during 0.1 microgram/kg X min DA than in basal conditions in hyperprolactinemic patients, both in absolute (delta PRL 91.8 +/- 17.6 vs. 38.4 +/- 6.8, P less than 0.03) and per cent (198.5 +/- 67.6 vs. 32.1 +/- 7.5, P less than 0.02) values. A normal PRL response to TRH, arbitrarily defined as an increase greater than 100% of baseline, was restored in 11 out of 15 previously unresponsive hyperprolactinemic patients.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Meclofenamate increases ventilation in lambs

To investigate the effects of the prostaglandin synthetase inhibitor, meclofenamate, on postnatal ventilation, we studied 11 unanaesthetised, spontaneously-breathing lambs at an average age of 7.9 +/- 1.1 days (SEM; range 5-14 days) and an average weight of 4.9 +/- 0.5 kg (range 3.0-7.0 kg). After a 30-min control period we infused 4.23 mg/kg meclofenamate over 10 min and then gave 0.23 mg/h per kg for the remainder of the 4 h. Ventilation increased progressively from a control value of 515 +/- 72 ml/min per kg to a maximum of 753 +/- 100 ml/min per kg after 3h of infusion (P less than 0.05) due to an increased breathing rate; the effects were similar during both high- and low-voltage electrocortical activity. There were no significant changes in tidal volume, heart rate, blood pressure, arterial pH or PaCO2, the increased ventilation resulted from either an increase in dead space ventilation or an increase in CO2 production. This study indicates that meclofenamate causes an increase in ventilation in lambs but no changes in pH of PaCO2. The mechanism and site of action remain to be defined.