Alloantibodies prevent the induction of transplantation tolerance by enhancing alloreactive T cell priming

Circulating alloantibodies in transplant recipients are often associated with increased Ab-mediated as well as cellular rejection. We tested the hypothesis that alloantibodies facilitate cellular rejection by functioning as opsonins to enhance T cell activation using a BALB/c to C57BL/6 heart or skin transplant model. Long-term heart and skin survival induced with anti-CD154 alone or in combination with donor-specific transfusion (DST), respectively, was abrogated by the presence of anti-K(d) mAbs, and alloreactive T cell activation as well as acute rejection was observed. The prevention of graft acceptance in the skin model was dependent on anti-K(d) binding to and converting DST from tolerigenic to immunogenic. Adoptive transfer of CFSE-labeled TCR-transgenic T cells into B6 recipients treated with anti-CD154/DST revealed the ability of anti-K(d) to enhance the proliferation of anti-K(d)-specific T cells via the indirect pathway as well as of non-K(d)-reactive, recipient MHC-restricted CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells. Thus, alloantibodies with restricted specificity are able to facilitate the indirect presentation as well as the cross-presentation of a larger repertoire of "linked" donor-derived Ags. These observations highlight the ability of alloantibodies to function not only in classical humoral rejection but also as opsonins that facilitate the CD40-CD154-independent activation of alloreactive T cells.     

Modulation of tissue-specific immune response to cardiac myosin can prolong survival of allogeneic heart transplants

The role of immune response to tissue-specific Ags in transplant rejection is poorly defined. We have previously reported that transplantation of cardiac allografts triggers a CD4(+) Th1 cell response to cardiac myosin (CM), a major contractile protein of the heart, and that pretransplant activation of proinflammatory CM-specific T cells accelerates rejection. In this study, we show that administration of CM together with IFA (CM/IFA) can prevent acute rejection of an allogeneic heart transplant. Prolongation of cardiac graft survival is associated with activation of CM- and allo-specific T cells secreting type 2 cytokines (IL-4, IL-5) and reduction of the frequency of proinflammatory IFN-gamma-secreting (type 1) alloreactive T cells. Blocking of IL-4 cytokine with Abs abrogates the prolongation. CM/IFA treatment prevents acute rejection of MHC class I-mismatched, but not fully mismatched grafts. However, if donor heart is devoid of MHC class II expression, CM-IFA administration delays rejection of fully allogeneic cardiac transplants. This finding suggests that the effect of CM modulation depends on the type (direct vs indirect) and strength of recipient's CD4(+) T cell alloresponse. Our results underscore the important role of host immunity to tissue-specific Ags in the rejection of an allograft. This study demonstrates that modulation of the immune response to a tissue-specific Ag can significantly prolong cardiac allograft survival, an observation that may have important implications for the development of novel selective immune therapies in transplantation.     

DNA fusion vaccines induce targeted epitope-specific CTLs against minor histocompatibility antigens from a normal or tolerized repertoire

We have designed DNA fusion vaccines able to induce high levels of epitope-specific CD8(+) T cells, using linked CD4(+) T cell help. Such vaccines can activate effective immunity against tumor Ags. To model performance against minor histocompatibility (H) Ags important in allogeneic hemopoietic stem cell transplantation, responses against the H2D(b)-restricted Uty and Smcy male HY epitopes have been investigated. Vaccination of females induced high levels of tetramer-specific, IFN-gamma-producing CD8(+) T cells against each epitope. Vaccines incorporating a single epitope primed effector CTL able to kill male splenocytes in vitro and in vivo, and HY(Db)Uty-specific vaccination accelerated rejection of syngeneic male skin grafts. Priming against either epitope established long-term memory, expandable by injection of male cells. Expanded CD8(+) T cells remained specific for the priming HY epitope, with responses to the second suppressed. To investigate vaccine performance in a tolerized repertoire, male mice were vaccinated with the fusion constructs. Strikingly, this also generated epitope-specific IFN-gamma-producing CD8(+) T cells with cytotoxic function. However, numbers and avidity were lower than in vaccinated females, and vaccinated males failed to reject CFSE-labeled male splenocytes in vivo. Nevertheless, these findings indicate that DNA fusion vaccines can mobilize CD8(+) T cells against endogenous minor H Ags, even from a profoundly tolerized repertoire. In the transplantation setting, vaccination of donors could prime and expand specific T cells for in vivo transfer. For patients, vaccination could activate a potentially less tolerized repertoire against similar Ags that may be overexpressed by tumor cells, for focused immune attack.     

Cutting edge: tumor secreted heat shock-fusion protein elicits CD8 cells for rejection.

The endoplasmic reticulum resident heat shock protein gp96 chaperons peptides, including those derived from tumor Ags, on their way to presentation by MHC class I. Replacement of the endoplasmic reticulum retention signal of gp96 with the Fc portion of murine IgG1 generated a secretory form of gp96, gp96-Ig. Tumor cells secreting gp96-Ig exhibited decreased tumorigenicity and increased immunogenicity in vivo and were rejected after initial growth. Rejection required CD8 T cells during the priming and effector phase. CD4 T cells were not required for rejection in either phase. Carrageenan, a compound known to inactivate macrophages in vivo, did not diminish CD8-mediated tumor rejection. Therefore, immunization with tumors secreting gp96-Ig generates efficient tumor-rejecting CD8 CTL without requirement for CD4 or macrophage help. In contrast, immunization with purified, tumor-derived gp96 or with irradiated tumor cells requires both.     

The surprising kinetics of the T cell response to live antigenic cells

Cooperation between CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells is required for the proper development of primary effector and memory CD8(+) T cells following immunization with noninflammatory immunogens. In this study, we characterized murine CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cell responses to male-specific minor histocompatibility (HY) Ags following injection of live male cells into females of the same strain. Male cells are rejected 10-12 days after transfer, coinciding with the expansion and effector function of CD8(+) CTLs to two H-2D(b)-restricted epitopes. Although anti-HY CD4(+) T cell responses are readily detectable day 5 posttransfer, CD8(+) responses are undetectable until day 10. The early CD4(+) response is not dependent on direct presentation of Ag by donor male cells, but depends on presentation of the male cells by recipient APC. The CD4(+) T cell response is required for the priming of CD8(+) T cell effector responses and rejection of HY-incompatible cells. Unexpectedly, HY-specific CD4(+) T cells are also capable of efficiently lysing target cells in vivo. The delay in the CD8(+) T cell response can be largely abrogated by depleting T cells from the male inoculum, and donor male CD8(+) T cells in particular suppress host anti-HY CD8(+) responses. These data demonstrate dramatic differences in host T cell responses to noninflammatory Ags compared with responses to pathogens. We explain the delayed CD8(+) response by proposing that there is a balance between cross-presentation of Ag by helper cell-licensed dendritic cells, on the one hand, and veto suppression by live male lymphocytes on the other.     

Cutting edge: intravenous soluble antigen is presented to CD4 T cells by CD8- dendritic cells, but cross-presented to CD8 T cells by CD8+ dendritic cells

Mouse spleen contains three distinct mature dendritic cell (DC) populations (CD4(+)8(-), CD4(-)8(-), and CD4(-)8(+)) which retain a capacity to take up particulate and soluble AGS: Although the three splenic DC subtypes showed similar uptake of injected soluble OVA, they differed markedly in their capacity to present this Ag and activate proliferation in OVA-specific CD4 or CD8 T cells. For class II MHC-restricted presentation to CD4 T cells, the CD8(-) DC subtypes were more efficient, but for class I MHC-restricted presentation to CD8 T cells, the CD8(+) DC subtype was far more effective. This differential persisted when the DC were activated with LPS. The CD8(+) DC are therefore specialized for in vivo cross-presentation of exogenous soluble Ags into the class I MHC presentation pathway.     

DNA immunization against tissue-restricted antigens enhances tumor immunity after allogeneic hemopoietic stem cell transplantation

Malignant relapse remains a major problem for recipients of allogeneic hemopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). We hypothesized that immunization of allogeneic HSCT recipients against tissue-restricted Ags using DNA vaccines would decrease the risk of relapse without enhancing graft-vs-host disease (GVHD). Using the mouse B16 melanoma model, we found that post-HSCT DNA immunization against a single tumor Ag induces tumor rejection that is significantly greater than HSCT alone in a T cell-depleted MHC-matched minor Ag-mismatched allogeneic HSCT model (LP --> B6). In treatment models, post-HSCT DNA immunization provides significantly greater overall survival than the vaccine alone. Donor leukocyte infusion further enhances tumor-free survival, including in treatment models. There was no GVHD in HSCT recipients treated with DNA vaccination and donor leukocyte infusion. Further analysis demonstrated that these effects are dependent on CD8+ T cells of donor origin that recognize multiple epitopes. These results demonstrate that DNA immunization against tissue-restricted Ags after allogeneic T cell-depleted HSCT can induce potent antitumor effects without causing GVHD.     

Combining liver- and blood-stage malaria viral-vectored vaccines: investigating mechanisms of CD8+ T cell interference

Replication-deficient adenovirus and modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) vectors expressing single pre-erythrocytic or blood-stage Plasmodium falciparum Ags have entered clinical testing using a heterologous prime-boost immunization approach. In this study, we investigated the utility of the same immunization regimen when combining viral vectored vaccines expressing the 42-kDa C terminus of the blood-stage Ag merozoite surface protein 1 and the pre-erythrocytic Ag circumsporozoite protein in the Plasmodium yoelii mouse model. We find that vaccine coadministration leads to maintained Ab responses and efficacy against blood-stage infection, but reduced secondary CD8(+) T cell responses against both Ags and efficacy against liver-stage infection. CD8(+) T cell interference can be minimized by coadministering the MVA vaccines at separate sites, resulting in enhanced liver-stage efficacy in mice immunized against both Ags compared with just one. CD8(+) T cell interference (following MVA coadministration as a mixture) may be caused partly by a lack of physiologic space for high-magnitude responses against multiple Ags, but is not caused by competition for presentation of Ag on MHC class I molecules, nor is it due to restricted T cell access to APCs presenting both Ags. Instead, enhanced killing of peptide-pulsed cells is observed in mice possessing pre-existing T cells against two Ags compared with just one, suggesting that priming against multiple Ags may in part reduce the potency of multiantigen MVA vectors to stimulate secondary CD8(+) T cell responses. These data have important implications for the development of a multistage or multicomponent viral vectored malaria vaccine for use in humans.     

The human CD1-restricted T cell repertoire is limited to cross-reactive antigens: implications for host responses against immunologically related pathogens

The repertoires of CD1- and MHC-restricted T cells are complementary, permitting the immune recognition of both lipid and peptide Ags, respectively. To compare the breadth of the CD1-restricted and MHC-restricted T cell repertoires, we evaluated T cell responses against lipid and peptide Ags of mycobacteria in leprosy, comparing tuberculoid patients, who are able to restrict the pathogen, and lepromatous patients, who have disseminated infection. The striking finding was that in lepromatous leprosy, T cells did not efficiently recognize lipid Ags from the leprosy pathogen, Mycobacterium leprae, or the related species, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, yet were able to efficiently recognize peptide Ags from M. tuberculosis, but not M. leprae. To identify a mechanism for T cell unresponsiveness against mycobacterial lipid Ags in lepromatous patients, we used T cell clones to probe the species specificity of the Ags recognized. We found that the majority of M. leprae-reactive CD1-restricted T cell clones (92%) were cross-reactive for multiple mycobacterial species, whereas the majority of M. leprae-reactive MHC-restricted T cells were species specific (66%), with a limited number of T cell clones cross-reactive (34%) with M. tuberculosis. In comparison with the MHC class II-restricted T cell repertoire, the CD1-restricted T cell repertoire is limited to recognition of cross-reactive Ags, imparting a distinct role in the host response to immunologically related pathogens.     

Role of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in allorecognition: lessons from corneal transplantation

Corneal transplantation represents an interesting model to investigate the contribution of direct vs indirect Ag recognition pathways to the alloresponse. Corneal allografts are naturally devoid of MHC class II+ APCs. In addition, minor Ag-mismatched corneal grafts are more readily rejected than their MHC-mismatched counterparts. Accordingly, it has been hypothesized that these transplants do not trigger direct T cell alloresponse, but that donor Ags are presented by host APCs, i.e., in an indirect fashion. Here, we have determined the Ag specificity, frequency, and phenotype of T cells activated through direct and indirect pathways in BALB/c mice transplanted orthotopically with fully allogeneic C57BL/6 corneas. In this combination, only 60% of the corneas are rejected, while the remainder enjoy indefinite graft survival. In rejecting mice the T cell response was mediated by two T cell subsets: 1) CD4+ T cells that recognize alloantigens exclusively through indirect pathway and secrete IL-2, and 2) IFN-gamma-producing CD8+ T cells recognizing donor MHC in a direct fashion. Surprisingly, CD8+ T cells activated directly were not required for graft rejection. In nonrejecting mice, no T cell responses were detected. Strikingly, peripheral sensitization to allogeneic MHC molecules in these mice induced acute rejection of corneal grafts. We conclude that only CD4+ T cells activated via indirect allorecognition have the ability to reject allogeneic corneal grafts. Although alloreactive CD8+ T cells are activated via the direct pathway, they are not fully competent and cannot contribute to the rejection unless they receive an additional signal provided by professional APCs in the periphery.     

Inhibition of graft-versus-host disease by double-negative regulatory T cells

Pretransplant infusion of lymphocytes that express a single allogeneic MHC class I Ag has been shown to induce tolerance to skin and heart allografts that express the same alloantigens. In this study, we demonstrate that reconstitution of immunoincompetent mice with spleen cells from MHC class I L(d)-mismatched donors does not cause graft-vs-host disease (GVHD). Recipient mice become tolerant to skin allografts of lymphocyte donor origin while retaining immunity to third-party alloantigens. The mechanism involves donor-derived CD3(+)CD4(-)CD8(-) double-negative T regulatory (DN Treg) cells, which greatly increase and form the majority of T lymphocytes in the spleen of recipient mice. DN Treg cells isolated from tolerant recipient mice can suppress the proliferation of syngeneic antihost CD8(+) T cells in vitro. Furthermore, we demonstrate that DN Treg cells can be generated in vitro by stimulating them with MHC class I L(d)-mismatched lymphocytes. These in vitro generated L(d)-specific DN Treg cells are able to down-regulate the activity of antihost CD8(+) T cells in vitro by directly killing activated CD8(+) T cells. Moreover, infusing in vitro generated L(d)-mismatched DN Treg cells prevented the development of GVHD caused by allogeneic CD8(+) T cells. Together these data demonstrate that infusion of single MHC class I locus-mismatched lymphocytes may induce donor-specific transplantation tolerance through activation of DN Treg cells, which can suppress antihost CD8(+) T cells and prevent the development of GVHD. This finding indicates that using single class I locus-mismatched grafts may be a viable alternative to using fully matched grafts in bone marrow transplantation.     

Presentation of soluble antigens to CD8+ T cells by CpG oligodeoxynucleotide-primed human naive B cells

Naive B lymphocytes are generally thought to be poor APCs, and there is limited knowledge of their role in activation of CD8(+) T cells. In this article, we demonstrate that class I MHC Ag presentation by human naive B cells is enhanced by TLR9 agonists. Purified naive B cells were cultured with or without a TLR9 agonist (CpG oligodeoxynucleotide [ODN] 2006) for 2 d and then assessed for phenotype, endocytic activity, and their ability to induce CD8(+) T cell responses to soluble Ags. CpG ODN enhanced expression of class I MHC and the costimulatory molecule CD86 and increased endocytic activity as determined by uptake of dextran beads. Pretreatment of naive B cells with CpG ODN also enabled presentation of tetanus toxoid to CD8(+) T cells, resulting in CD8(+) T cell cytokine production and granzyme B secretion and proliferation. Likewise, CpG-activated naive B cells showed enhanced ability to cross-present CMV Ag to autologous CD8(+) T cells, resulting in proliferation of CMV-specific CD8(+) T cells. Although resting naive B cells are poor APCs, they can be activated by TLR9 agonists to serve as potent APCs for class I MHC-restricted T cell responses. This novel activity of naive B cells could be exploited for vaccine design.     

Tolerance induction by transcutaneous immunization through ultraviolet-irradiated skin is transferable through CD4+CD25+ T regulatory cells and is dependent on host-derived IL-10

UV radiation of the skin impairs immune responses to haptens and to tumor Ags. Transcutaneous immunization (TCI) is an effective method of inducing immune responses to protein and peptide Ag. We explore the effect of UV irradiation on TCI. The generation of Ag-specific CTL to OVA protein, but not class I MHC-restricted OVA peptide, is inhibited by TCI through UV-irradiated skin. Consequently, the induction of protein contact hypersensitivity and in vivo Ag-specific CTL activity following OVA protein immunization is prevented. Application of haptens to UV-exposed skin induces hapten-specific tolerance. We demonstrate that application of protein or class II MHC-restricted OVA peptide to UV-irradiated skin induces transferable Ag-specific tolerance. This tolerance is mediated by CD4(+)CD25(+) T regulatory (T(reg)) cells. These Ag-specific T(reg) cells inhibit the priming of CTL following protein immunization in the presence of CpG adjuvant. IL-10 deficiency is known to prevent hapten-specific tolerance induction. In this study, we demonstrate, using IL-10-deficient mice and adoptive T cell transfer, that IL-10 is required for the direct inhibition of CTL priming following immunization through UV-irradiated skin. However, IL-10 is not required for the induction of T(reg) cells through UV-irradiated skin as IL-10-deficient T(reg) cells are able to mediate tolerance. Rather, host-derived IL-10 is required for the function of UV-generated T(reg) cells. These experiments indicate that protein and peptide TCI through UV-irradiated skin may be used to induce robust Ag-specific tolerance to neo-Ags and that UV-induced T(reg) cells mediate their effects in part through the modulation of IL-10.     

An inclusion membrane protein from Chlamydia trachomatis enters the MHC class I pathway and stimulates a CD8+ T cell response

During its developmental cycle, the intracellular bacterial pathogen Chlamydia trachomatis remains confined within a protective vacuole known as an inclusion. Nevertheless, CD8(+) T cells that recognize Chlamydia Ags in the context of MHC class I molecules are primed during infection. MHC class I-restricted presentation of these Ags suggests that these proteins or domains from them have access to the host cell cytoplasm. Chlamydia products with access to the host cell cytoplasm define a subset of molecules uniquely positioned to interface with the intracellular environment during the pathogen's developmental cycle. In addition to their use as candidate Ags for stimulating CD8(+) T cells, these proteins represent novel candidates for therapeutic intervention of infection. In this study, we use C. trachomatis-specific murine T cells and an expression-cloning strategy to show that CT442 from Chlamydia is targeted by CD8(+) T cells. CT442, also known as CrpA, is a 15-kDa protein of undefined function that has previously been shown to be associated with the Chlamydia inclusion membrane. We show that: 1) CD8(+) T cells specific for an H-2D(b)-restricted epitope from CrpA are elicited at a significant level (approximately 4% of splenic CD8(+) T cells) in mice in response to infection; 2) the response to this epitope correlates with clearance of the organism from infected mice; and 3) immunization with recombinant vaccinia virus expressing CrpA elicits partial protective immunity to subsequent i.v. challenge with C. trachomatis.     

Tolerance to antigen-presenting cell-depleted islet allografts is CD4 T cell dependent

Pretreatment of pancreatic islets in 95% oxygen culture depletes graft-associated APCs and leads to indefinite allograft acceptance in immunocompetent recipients. As such, the APC-depleted allograft represents a model of peripheral alloantigen presentation in the absence of donor-derived costimulation. Over time, a state of donor-specific tolerance develops in which recipients are resistant to donor APC-induced graft rejection. Thus, persistence of the graft is sufficient to induce tolerance independent of other immune interventions. Donor-specific tolerance could be adoptively transferred to immune-deficient SCID recipient mice transplanted with fresh immunogenic islet allografts, indicating that the original recipient was not simply "ignorant" of donor antigens. Interestingly, despite the fact that the original islet allograft presented only MHC class I alloantigens, CD8+ T cells obtained from tolerant animals readily collaborated with naive CD4+ T cells to reject donor-type islet grafts. Conversely, tolerant CD4+ T cells failed to collaborate effectively with naive CD8+ T cells for the rejection of donor-type grafts. In conclusion, the MHC class I+, II- islet allograft paradoxically leads to a change in the donor-reactive CD4 T cell subset and not in the CD8 subset. We hypothesize that the tolerant state is not due to direct class I alloantigen presentation to CD8 T cells but, rather, occurs via the indirect pathway of donor Ag presentation to CD4 T cells in the context of host MHC class II molecules.     

Functional expression of human CD8 in fully reconstituted mice after retroviral-mediated gene transfer of hemopoietic stem cells.

Retroviral-mediated gene transfer has been used in an attempt to efficiently and stably express functional cell-surface molecules in lymphoid and myeloid cells. The human CD8 molecule is a T cell-specific surface receptor that is intimately involved in class I MHC-restricted Ag recognition and subsequent T cell activation. After infection with a recombinant, replication-defective retrovirus containing the human CD8 alpha cDNA, bone marrow cells were transplanted into lethally irradiated recipients. The majority of lymphoid and myeloid cells of reconstituted animals expressed high levels of human CD8 for at least 8 months after transplantation. Transfer of bone marrow and spleen cells from these recipients 100 days after transplantation into secondary recipients also resulted in long term expression of CD8 in lymphoid and myeloid cells. CD8 expressed in splenic T cells associated with the lymphoid-specific tyrosine protein kinase p56lck, participated in T cell activation and conferred an increased xenogeneic response to human MHC class I Ag. Thus, retroviral-mediated gene transfer allows the long term, functional expression of cell-surface molecules in normal murine lymphoid and myeloid cells.     

A two-step model of acute CD4 T-cell mediated cardiac allograft rejection

CD4 T cells are both necessary and sufficient to mediate acute cardiac allograft rejection in mice. This process requires "direct" engagement of donor MHC class II molecules. That is, acute rejection by CD4+ T cells requires target MHC class II expression by the donor and not by the host. However, it is unclear whether CD4+ T cell rejection requires MHC class II expression on donor hemopoietic cells, nonhemopoietic cells, or both. To address this issue, bone marrow transplantation in mice was used to generate chimeric heart donors in which MHC class II was expressed either on somatic or on hemopoietic cells. We report that direct recognition of hemopoietic and nonhemopoietic cells are individually rate limiting for CD4+ T cell-mediated rejection in vivo. Importantly, active immunization with MHC class II(+) APCs triggered acute rejection of hearts expressing MHC class II only on the somatic compartment. Thus, donor somatic cells, including endothelial cells, are not sufficient to initiate acute rejection; but they are necessary as targets of direct alloreactive CD4 T cells. Taken together, results support a two-stage model in which donor passenger leukocytes are required to activate the CD4 response while direct interaction with the somatic compartment is necessary for the efferent phase of acute graft rejection.     

Therapeutic implications of NK cell regulation of allogeneic CD8 T cell-mediated immune responses stimulated through the direct pathway of antigen presentation in transplantation

Natural killer (NK) cells are a population of innate type I lymphoid cells essential for early anti-viral responses and are known to modulate the course of humoral and cellular-mediated T cell responses. We assessed the role of NK cells in allogeneic CD8 T cell-mediated responses in an immunocompetent mouse model across an MHC class I histocompatibility barrier to determine its impact in therapeutic clinical interventions with polyclonal or monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) targeting lymphoid cells in transplantation. The administration of an NK cell depleting antibody to either CD8 T cell replete or CD8 T cell-depleted naïve C57BL/6 immunocompetent mice accelerated graft rejection. This accelerated rejection response was associated with an in vivo increased cytotoxic activity of CD8 T cells against bm1 allogeneic hematopoietic cells and bm1 skin allografts. These findings show that NK cells were implicated in the control host anti-donor cytotoxic responses, likely by competing for common cell growth factors in both CD8 T cell replete and CD8 T cell-depleted mice, the latter reconstituting in response to lymphopenia. Our data calls for precaution in solid organ transplantation under tolerogenic protocols involving extensive depletion of lymphocytes. These pharmacological biologics with depleting properties over NK cells may accelerate graft rejection and promote aggressive CD8 T cell cytotoxic alloresponses refractory to current immunosuppression.     

Transplantation tolerance to a single noninherited MHC class I maternal alloantigen studied in a TCR-transgenic mouse model

The mechanisms underlying tolerance to noninherited maternal Ags (NIMA) are not fully understood. In this study, we designed a double-transgenic model in which all the offspring's CD8(+) T cells corresponded to a single clone recognizing the K(b) MHC class I protein. In contrast, the mother and the father of the offspring differed by the expression of a single Ag, K(b), that served as NIMA. We investigated the influence of NIMA exposure on the offspring thymic T cell selection during ontogeny and on its peripheral T cell response during adulthood. We observed that anti-K(b) thymocytes were exposed to NIMA and became activated during fetal life but were not deleted. Strikingly, adult mice exposed to NIMA accepted permanently K(b+) heart allografts despite the presence of normal levels of anti-K(b) TCR transgenic T cells. Transplant tolerance was associated with a lack of a proinflammatory alloreactive T cell response and an activation/expansion of T cells producing IL-4 and IL-10. In addition, we observed that tolerance to NIMA K(b) was abrogated via depletion of CD4(+) but not CD8(+) T cells and could be transferred to naive nonexposed mice via adoptive transfer of CD4(+)CD25(high) T cell expressing Foxp3 isolated from NIMA mice.     

Paternal antigen-bearing cells transferred during insemination do not stimulate anti-paternal CD8+ T cells: role of estradiol in locally inhibiting CD8+ T cell responses

Maternal immunological tolerance of the semiallogeneic fetus involves several overlapping mechanisms to balance maternal immunity and fetal development. Anti-paternal CD8+ T cells are suppressed during pregnancy in some but not all mouse models. Since semen has been shown to mediate immune modulation, we tested whether exposure to paternal Ag during insemination activated or tolerized anti-paternal CD8+ T cells. The uterine lumen of mated female mice contained male MHC I+ cells that stimulated effector, but not naive, CD8+ T cells ex vivo. Maternal MHC class I+ myeloid cells fluxed into the uterine lumen in response to mating and cross-presented male H-Y Ag to effector, but not naive, CD8+ T cells ex vivo. However, neither unprimed nor previously primed TCR-transgenic CD8+ T cells specific for either paternal MHC I or H-Y Ag proliferated in vivo after mating. These T cells subsequently responded normally to i.p. challenge, implicating ignorance rather than anergy as the main reason for the lack of response. CD8+ T cells responded to either peptide Ag or male cells delivered intravaginally in ovariectomized mice, but this response was inhibited by systemic estradiol (inducing an estrus-like state). Subcutaneous Ag induced responses in both cases. Allogeneic dendritic cells did not induce responses intravaginally even in ovariectomized mice in the absence of estradiol. These results suggest that inhibition of antiallogeneic responses is restricted both locally to the reproductive tract and temporally to the estrous phase of the menstrual cycle, potentially decreasing the risk of maternal immunization against paternal Ags during insemination.