Timing is everything: Fishing‐season placement may represent the most important angling‐induced evolutionary pressure on Atlantic salmon populations

Fisheries‐induced evolution can change the trajectory of wild fish populations by selectively targeting certain phenotypes. For important fish species like Atlantic salmon, this could have large implications for their conservation and management. Most salmon rivers are managed by specifying an angling season of predetermined length based on population demography, which is typically established from catch statistics. Given the circularity of using catch statistics to estimate demographic parameters, it may be difficult to quantify the selective nature of angling and its evolutionary impact. In the River Etne in Norway, a recently installed trap permits daily sampling of fish entering the river, some of which are subsequently captured by anglers upstream. Here, we used 31 microsatellites to establish an individual DNA profile for salmon entering the trap, and for many of those subsequently captured by anglers. These data permitted us to investigate time of rod capture relative to river entry, potential body size‐selective harvest, and environmental variables associated with river entry. Larger, older fish entered the river earlier than smaller, younger fish of both sexes, and larger, older females were more abundant than males and vice versa. There was good agreement between the sizes of fish harvested by angling, and the size distribution of the population sampled on the trap. These results demonstrate that at least in this river, and with the current timing of the season, the angling catch reflects the population's demographics and there is no evidence of size‐selective harvest. We also demonstrated that the probability of being caught by angling declines quickly after river entry. Collectively, these data indicate that that the timing of the fishing season, in relation to the upstream migration patterns of the different demographics of the population, likely represents the most significant directional evolutionary force imposed by angling.     

垂钓强度对鲫幼鱼易钓性和生长的影响

为考察不同垂钓强度对鲤科鱼类易钓性和生长的影响, 研究以鲫(Carassius auratus)幼鱼为实验对象, 在实验(26.9±0.1)℃条件下对大小相近和机体健康的3个处理组[高强度组(1d垂钓1次)、中强度组(2d垂钓1次)和低强度组(4d垂钓1次)]进行垂钓实验; 每个垂钓处理组均设3个平行组, 每个平行组包括40尾鱼, 每个组在垂钓10h后则停止该组的垂钓活动, 记录成功垂钓每尾鱼的时间、序号和电子标签信息, 计算垂钓比例、单尾被钓时间、平均垂钓序号、变异系数和实验期间(9d)的生长率。研究发现: 3个垂钓强度组的垂钓比例均随着垂钓次数的增加而呈现下降的变化趋势, 单尾被钓时间呈现增加的变化趋势, 导致垂钓比例与单尾被钓时间呈负相关。除低强度组外, 高、中垂钓强度组的平均垂钓序号随着被钓次数的增加均呈现减小的变化趋势, 并且该2个强度组平均垂钓序号的变异系数随着被钓次数的增多均呈增大的变化趋势; 3个垂钓强度组的平均垂钓序号与其变异系数呈负相关。3个垂钓强度组在实验期间的特定生长率均出现负值情况, 但3个组之间无差异。研究表明: 高强度的垂钓活动会降低鲫幼鱼的易钓性, 并且导致个体生长表现出一定的负面效应, 表明高强度垂钓活动可能影响鱼类野外种群易钓性及其相关的其他表型的进化轨迹。     

Between‐lake variation in the trophic ecology of an invasive crayfish

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Effects of sampling techniques on population assessment of invasive round goby Neogobius melanostomus

In this study, a comparison of point abundance sampling (PAS) electrofishing, angling with two different hook sizes and trap‐based fishing was performed in a non‐wadeable river to analyse their effects on catch per unit effort (CPUE) and population characteristics of invasive round goby Neogobius melanostomus. PAS electrofishing was identified as the most effective (mean ± s.e . CPUE = 57 ± 4 N. melanostomus min^?1) and least selective method in terms of size, feeding status and species composition. Angling had the second highest CPUE, but was more size selective and resulted in a higher proportion of males compared to electrofishing [overall sex ratio angling (female:male) = 1:0·92, electrofishing 1:0·65]. Owing to low CPUE (0·012 ± 0·004) and low frequency of occurrence, minnow traps were least suitable for N. melanostomus population assessment. The results of this study suggest that a higher degree of standardization and inter‐calibration is useful to achieve better comparability of population data of invasive N. melanostomus and other benthic fish species.     

Phenotypic responses of invasive species to removals affect ecosystem functioning and restoration

Reducing the abundances of invasive species by removals aims to minimize their ecological impacts and enable ecosystem recovery. Removal methods are usually selective, modifying phenotypic traits in the managed populations. However, there is little empirical evidence of how removal‐driven changes in multiple phenotypic traits of surviving individuals of invasive species can affect ecosystem functioning and recovery. Overcoming this knowledge gap is highly relevant because individuals are the elemental units of ecological processes and so integrating individual‐level responses into the management of biological invasions could improve their efficiency. Here we provide novel demonstration that removals by trapping, angling and biocontrol from lakes of the globally invasive crayfish Procambarus clarkii induced substantial changes in multiple phenotypic traits. A mesocosm experiment then revealed that these changes in phenotypic traits constrain recovery of basic ecosystem functions (decomposition of organic matter, benthic primary production) by acting in the opposite direction than the effects of reduced invader abundance. However, only minor ecological impacts of invader abundance and phenotypic traits variation remained a year after its complete eradication. Our study provides quantitative evidence to an original idea that removal‐driven trait changes can dampen recovery of invaded ecosystems even when the abundance of invasive species is substantially reduced. We suggest that the phenotypic responses of invaders to the removal programme have strong effects on ecosystem recovery and should be considered within the management of biological invasions, particularly when complete eradication is not achievable.     

Probabilistic maturation reaction norms assessed from mark–recaptures of wild fish in their natural habitat

Reaction norms are a valuable tool in evolutionary biology. Lately, the probabilistic maturation reaction norm approach, describing probabilities of maturing at combinations of age and body size, has been much applied for testing whether phenotypic changes in exploited populations of fish are mainly plastic or involving an evolutionary component. However, due to typical field data limitations, with imperfect knowledge about individual life histories, this demographic method still needs to be assessed. Using 13 years of direct mark–recapture observations on individual growth and maturation in an intensively sampled population of brown trout (Salmo trutta), we show that the probabilistic maturation reaction norm approach may perform well even if the assumption of equal survival of juvenile and maturing fish does not hold. Earlier studies have pointed out that growth effects may confound the interpretation of shifts in maturation reaction norms, because this method in its basic form deals with body size rather than growth. In our case, however, we found that juvenile body size, rather than annual growth, was more strongly associated with maturation. Viewed against earlier studies, our results also underscore the challenges of generalizing life‐history patterns among species and populations.     

Predictions of response to selection caused by angling in a wild population of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)

1. Recreational angling activities in wild populations of Atlantic salmon may induce a selection pressure towards a reduction in body size and length if the angling season coincides with the return of the largest sea age fish class. 2. Using estimates of heritability for growth traits and estimates of the selection pressure from angling operating on growth, we predicted the response to selection expected to occur in a wild population of Atlantic salmon. 3. The dataset used here comprised individuals from two consecutive generations (parents and offspring) from the River Bidasoa (NW Spain). Offspring were assigned to parents using six highly polymorphic microsatellite loci. Use of restricted maximum likelihood methodology and the animal model allowed us to estimate the heritability for body length and body weight as well as their genetic correlation. 4. Estimated heritabilities (0.32 ± 0.12 for length and 0.32 ± 0.11 for weight) and selection pressure caused by angling were used to obtain predictions of response to selection because of angling. Our results suggested a decline of 1.9 mm in body length and 103.3 g in body weight per generation because of angling pressure. 5. The results derived from this study suggest that the angling season should be annually delayed in order to avoid selective angling of the multi‐year class and further reductions in body weight and length.     

Quantifying multiple pressure interactions affecting populations of a recreationally and commercially important freshwater fish

The expanding human global footprint and growing demand for freshwater have placed tremendous stress on inland aquatic ecosystems. Aichi Target 10 of the Convention on Biological Diversity aims to minimize anthropogenic pressures affecting vulnerable ecosystems, and pressure interactions are increasingly being incorporated into environmental management and climate change adaptation strategies. In this study, we explore how climate change, overfishing, forest disturbance, and invasive species pressures interact to affect inland lake walleye (Sander vitreus) populations. Walleye support subsistence, recreational, and commercial fisheries and are one of most sought‐after freshwater fish species in North America. Using data from 444 lakes situated across an area of 475 000 km² in Ontario, Canada, we apply a novel statistical tool, R‐INLA, to determine how walleye biomass deficit (carrying capacity—observed biomass) is impacted by multiple pressures. Individually, angling activity and the presence of invasive zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) were positively related to biomass deficits. In combination, zebra mussel presence interacted negatively and antagonistically with angling activity and percentage decrease in watershed mature forest cover. Velocity of climate change in growing degree days above 5°C and decrease in mature forest cover interacted to negatively affect walleye populations. Our study demonstrates how multiple pressure evaluations can be conducted for hundreds of populations to identify influential pressures and vulnerable ecosystems. Understanding pressure interactions is necessary to guide management and climate change adaptation strategies, and achieve global biodiversity targets.     

Early effects of the strategies of creating a genetic refuge and direct translocation for conserving and restoring populations of native brown trout

1. The conservation of salmonid inter‐ and intra‐specific diversity is a well‐known challenge, and general management guidelines and conservation processes are available. However, research demonstrating the outcomes of practical conservation actions is largely lacking. 2. We monitored the spatiotemporal genetic and demographic evolution of a native Mediterranean brown trout population in a river in the French Alps to assess the efficacy and early effects of genetic refuge (i.e. cessation of stocking) and wild trout translocation strategies. We also studied the use of angling as a tool to limit the introgression of the wild standing population. 3. We found that the rate of non‐native alleles in wild populations was age dependent, underpinning the importance of using age profiles in the design of genetic conservation studies. 4. Genetic refuge and direct translocation of wild trout resulted in a rapid and significant decrease in the percentages of non‐native alleles. Moreover, the genetic refuge strategy resulted in a significant reduction in the number of pure non‐native individuals, without changing trout densities, whilst direct translocations resulted in the establishment of dense, self‐sustaining native trout populations. Direct translocations changed the distribution of genotype categories and increased densities up to 55‐fold in 3 years. Our results also showed that angling resulted in a selective pressure on non‐native trout introduced at fry stage, whereas non‐native trout issued from natural recruitment were not affected. 5. Our study provides insights for improving the efficacy of practical conservation policies and can be used in other native freshwater fish conservation plans. Proactive measures such as direct translocation need to be implemented together with passive approaches such as genetic refuge policies. Before implementing such actions, accurate genetic and demographic studies at small geographical scales are essential to ensure that no self‐sustaining population of non‐native fish is present. To obtain rapid colonisation, we recommend introducing fish along whole river sections rather than concentrating on a few river stretches. Angling pressure can be used as an additional tool to improve restoration.     

Contemporary ocean warming and freshwater conditions are related to later sea age at maturity in Atlantic salmon spawning in Norwegian rivers

Atlantic salmon populations are reported to be declining throughout its range, raising major management concerns. Variation in adult fish abundance may be due to variation in survival, growth, and timing of life history decisions. Given the complex life history, utilizing highly divergent habitats, the reasons for declines may be multiple and difficult to disentangle. Using recreational angling data of two sea age groups, one‐sea‐winter (1SW) and two‐sea‐winter (2SW) fish originated from the same smolt year class, we show that sea age at maturity of the returns has increased in 59 Norwegian rivers over the cohorts 1991–2005. By means of linear mixed‐effects models we found that the proportion of 1SW fish spawning in Norway has decreased concomitant with the increasing sea surface temperature experienced by the fish in autumn during their first year at sea. Furthermore, the decrease in the proportion of 1SW fish was influenced by freshwater conditions as measured by water discharge during summer months 1 year ahead of seaward migration. These results suggest that part of the variability in age at maturity can be explained by the large‐scale changes occurring in the north‐eastern Atlantic pelagic food web affecting postsmolt growth, and by differences in river conditions influencing presmolt growth rate and later upstream migration.     

Evaluation of pulse fishing for the walleye, Stizostedion vitreum vitreum, in Henderson Lake, Ontario

A total of 3226 walleye were removed from Henderson Lake, Ontario over 3 years (1980–2), causing the stock to collapse. This removal tested the applicability of 'pulse' fishing as a management alternative, and also provided an opportunity to determine which population characteristics might be monitored to serve as predictors of stock collapse in this species.
Following initial exploitation, increased length at age occurred only within younger age-lasses. To use this response as a predictor, one must first obtain pre-exploitation length-at-age data through using the proper gear to sample small fish. Abrosov's mean age to mean age at maturity index may also forewarn of stress (1.2 critical t value for Henderson Lake), but poor recruitment usually invalidates this index, since the lower angling vulnerability of large fish biases mean age calculations. While annual production estimates were a good indicator of the collapse, their determination required much effort. Petersen population estimates produced much more realistic estimates of population size than Schumacher–Eschmeyer estimates, but both estimates not only require much effort but also are influenced by changes in recruitment.
Poor predictors of the walleye collapse included: catch-per-unit-effort data, which, while giving some idea of fish density, were not good indices of exploitation stress; condition factors, which were not correlated to fish abundance; fecundity increases, which suffered far too much of a retarded response in Henderson Lake to serve as a predictor of stock collapse. The inability to determine accurately sex ratios of measure recruitment made these parameters unless.
At least over the short term, neither northern pike nor white sucker populations have increased following the walleye collapse. As yet, walleye have not returned to their former abundance, so the operational usefulness of 'pulse' fishing remains an unknown.     

Stable resource polymorphism along the benthic littoral–pelagic axis in an invasive crayfish

Although intraspecific variability is now widely recognized as affecting evolutionary and ecological processes, our knowledge on the importance of intraspecific variability within invasive species is still limited. This is despite the fact that understanding the linkage between within‐population morphological divergences and the use of different trophic or spatial resources (i.e., resource polymorphism) can help to better predict their ecological impacts on recipient ecosystems. Here, we quantified the extent of resource polymorphism within populations of a worldwide invasive crayfish species, Procambarus clarkii, in 16 lake populations by comparing their trophic (estimated using stable isotope analyses) and morphological characteristics between individuals from the littoral and pelagic habitats. Our results first demonstrated that crayfish occured in both littoral and pelagic habitats of seven lakes and that the use of pelagic habitat was associated with increased abundance of littoral crayfish. We then found morphological (i.e., body and chelae shapes) and trophic divergence (i.e., reliance on littoral carbon) among individuals from littoral and pelagic habitats, highlighting the existence of resource polymorphism in invasive populations. There was no genetic differentiation between individuals from the two habitats, implying that this resource polymorphism was stable (i.e., high gene flow between individuals). Finally, we demonstrated that a divergent adaptive process was responsible for the morphological divergence in body and chela shapes between habitats while difference in littoral reliance neutrally evolved under genetic drift. These findings demonstrated that invasive P. clarkii can display strong within‐population phenotypic variability in recent populations, and this could lead to contrasting ecological impacts between littoral and pelagic individuals.     

Assessing population increase as a possible outcome to management of invasive species

Some efforts to reduce invasive populations have paradoxically led to population increases. This phenomenon, referred to as overcompensation, occurs when reduced intraspecific pressures increase juvenile survival or maturation rates, leading to increased population size. Overcompensation in response to eradication efforts could derail management efforts, so it would be beneficial to evaluate the likelihood of overcompensation prior to removal. We conducted a series of experiments to examine the potential for overcompensation of a non-native population of the European green crab, Carcinus maenas, which was being removed in Bodega Harbor, California. First, we examined the impact of adults on juvenile survival by measuring adult cannibalism on juveniles in the presence and absence of alternative prey, and the survival of tethered juveniles at varying adult densities. Second, we examined how adult presence affected juvenile short-term foraging and growth rates. Although adult presence reduced juvenile short-term foraging, we detected only minimal cannibalism and found no evidence that adults greatly reduce juvenile growth or survivorship. These results suggest that overcompensation is not likely to occur in this population in response to removal. We assessed this prediction using pre- and post-removal surveys of juvenile recruitment in Bodega Harbor compared to nearby populations, testing for evidence of overcompensation. Relative juvenile abundance did not statistically increase in removal compared to reference populations, consistent with our conclusion from the experiments. This experimental approach which focuses on an organism’s population biology provides a tool to assess capacity for assessing the capacity for overcompensation in management strategies for invasive species.     

异育银鲫易钓性的表型基础和生态结果及饥饿响应

为考察鲤科鱼类易钓性种内差异的表型基础、生态结果及饥饿响应, 研究以异育银鲫(Carassius auratus gibelio)幼鱼为实验对象, 在饥饿前(对照组)测定其表型特征(能量代谢、游泳能力和个性行为)并垂钓, 随后在饥饿1周后再次垂钓(饥饿组), 最后进行2周的恢复摄食生长实验(恢复组)。垂钓实验具有4个重复, 每个重复的样本量为40尾, 垂钓1.5h即停止, 垂钓20尾为钓出组, 剩余20尾为未钓出组。研究发现: 除钓出组的相对代谢空间(FAS)小于未钓出组外, 钓出组的外部形态(体重、体长和肥满度)、能量代谢参数(标准代谢率SMR、最大代谢率MMR和代谢空间AS)、游泳能力(最大匀加速游泳能力U_cat和最大有氧运动能力U_gt)及个性行为(探索性、活跃性和勇敢性)与未钓出组均无明显差异(所有P>0.05); 在经历捕食者模拟袭击后, 实验鱼勇敢性的潜伏时间比大于探索性, 导致勇敢性的运动时间比和穿门频率小于探索性。SMR与U_cat及U_gt不相关(P>0.05), 但MMR和AS与U_cat及U_gt均呈正相关(P<0.05); 能量代谢参数与个性行为存在部分相关。饥饿增加异育银鲫的垂钓总时间、单尾平均垂钓时间和单尾垂钓时间的变异系数。钓出组在饥饿期的特定生长率(SGR)小于未钓出组, 而恢复期钓出组的SGR与未钓出组无显著差异; 除MMR和AS外, SMR与饥饿期及恢复期的SGR均呈负相关(P<0.05), 即SMR越高个体在饥饿期间的体重下降更快, 在恢复摄食后生长却较慢。研究表明: 异育银鲫幼鱼的易钓性可能不具备表型基础, 并且因环境食物匮乏而降低; 虽然饥饿期间两种易钓性表型个体的生态结果存在差异, 但该生长差异在营养恢复后消失, 表明异育银鲫的易钓性具有一定的环境依赖性。     

Differences in the Metabolic Rates of Exploited and Unexploited Fish Populations: A Signature of Recreational Fisheries Induced Evolution?

Non-random mortality associated with commercial and recreational fisheries have the potential to cause evolutionary changes in fish populations. Inland recreational fisheries offer unique opportunities for the study of fisheries induced evolution due to the ability to replicate study systems, limited gene flow among populations, and the existence of unexploited reference populations. Experimental research has demonstrated that angling vulnerability is heritable in Largemouth Bass Micropterus salmoides, and is correlated with elevated resting metabolic rates (RMR) and higher fitness. However, whether such differences are present in wild populations is unclear. This study sought to quantify differences in RMR among replicated exploited and unexploited populations of Largemouth Bass. We collected age-0 Largemouth Bass from two Connecticut drinking water reservoirs unexploited by anglers for almost a century, and two exploited lakes, then transported and reared them in the same pond. Field RMR of individuals from each population was quantified using intermittent-flow respirometry. Individuals from unexploited reservoirs had a significantly higher mean RMR (6%) than individuals from exploited populations. These findings are consistent with expectations derived from artificial selection by angling on Largemouth Bass, suggesting that recreational angling may act as an evolutionary force influencing the metabolic rates of fishes in the wild. Reduced RMR as a result of fisheries induced evolution may have ecosystem level effects on energy demand, and be common in exploited recreational populations globally.     

Biotic interactions modify multiple‐stressor effects on juvenile brown trout in an experimental stream food web

Agricultural land use results in multiple stressors affecting stream ecosystems. Flow reduction due to water abstraction, elevated levels of nutrients and chemical contaminants are common agricultural stressors worldwide. Concurrently, stream ecosystems are also increasingly affected by climate change. Interactions among multiple co‐occurring stressors result in biological responses that cannot be predicted from single‐stressor effects (i.e. synergisms and antagonisms). At the ecosystem level, multiple‐stressor effects can be further modified by biotic interactions (e.g. trophic interactions). We conducted a field experiment using 128 flow‐through stream mesocosms to examine the individual and combined effects of water abstraction, nutrient enrichment and elevated levels of the nitrification inhibitor dicyandiamide (DCD) on survival, condition and gut content of juvenile brown trout and on benthic abundance of their invertebrate prey. Flow velocity reduction decreased fish survival (?12% compared to controls) and condition (?8% compared to initial condition), whereas effects of nutrient and DCD additions and interactions among these stressors were not significant. Negative effects of flow velocity reduction on fish survival and condition were consistent with effects on fish gut content (?25% compared to controls) and abundance of dominant invertebrate prey (?30% compared to controls), suggesting a negative metabolic balance driving fish mortality and condition decline, which was confirmed by structural equation modelling. Fish mortality under reduced flow velocity increased as maximal daily water temperatures approached the upper limit of their tolerance range, reflecting synergistic interactions between these stressors. Our study highlights the importance of indirect stressor effects such as those transferred through trophic interactions, which need to be considered when assessing and managing fish populations and stream food webs in multiple‐stressor situations. However, in real streams, compensatory mechanisms and behavioural responses, as well as seasonal and spatial variation, may alter the intensity of stressor effects and the sensitivity of trout populations.     

Physiological and behavioral consequences of long-term artificial selection for vulnerability to recreational angling in a teleost fish

Few studies have examined the physiological and behavioral consequences of fisheries-induced selection. We evaluated how four generations of artificial truncation selection for vulnerability to recreational angling (i.e., stocks selected for high and low vulnerability [HVF and LVF, respectively]) affected cardiovascular physiology and parental care behavior in the teleost fish largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides. Where possible, we compared artificially selected fish to control fish (CF) collected from the wild. Although, compared to control fish, resting cardiac activity was approximately 18% lower for LVF and approximately 20% higher for HVF, maximal values did not vary among treatments. As a result, the HVF had less cardiac scope than either LVF or CF. Recovery rates after exercise were similar for HVF and CF but slower for LVF. When engaged in parental care activities, nesting male HVF were captured more easily than male LVF. During parental care, HVF also had higher turning rates and pectoral and caudal fin beat rates, increased vigilance against predators, and higher in situ swimming speeds. Energetics simulations indicated that to achieve the same level of growth, the disparity in metabolic rates would require HVF to consume approximately 40% more food than LVF. Selection for angling vulnerability resulted in clear differences in physiological and energetic attributes. Not only is vulnerability to angling a heritable trait, but high vulnerability covaries with factors including higher metabolic rates, reduced metabolic scope, and increased parental care activity. Despite these energetically costly differences, HVF and LVF of the same age were of similar size, suggesting that heightened food consumption in HVF compensated for added costs in experimental ponds. Ultimately, angling vulnerability appears to be a complex interaction of numerous factors leading to selection for very different phenotypes. If HVF are selectively harvested from a population, the remaining fish in that population may be less effective in providing parental care, potentially reducing reproductive output. The strong angling pressure in many freshwater systems, and therefore the potential for this to occur in the wild, necessitate management approaches that recognize the potential evolutionary consequences of angling.     

Combining genetic and demographic data for prioritizing conservation actions: insights from a threatened fish species

Prioritizing and making efficient conservation plans for threatened populations requires information at both evolutionary and ecological timescales. Nevertheless, few studies integrate multidisciplinary approaches, mainly because of the difficulty for conservationists to assess simultaneously the evolutionary and ecological status of populations. Here, we sought to demonstrate how combining genetic and demographic analyses allows prioritizing and initiating conservation plans. To do so, we combined snapshot microsatellite data and a 30‐year‐long demographic survey on a threatened freshwater fish species (Parachondrostoma toxostoma) at the river basin scale. Our results revealed low levels of genetic diversity and weak effective population sizes (<63 individuals) in all populations. We further detected severe bottlenecks dating back to the last centuries (200–800 years ago), which may explain the differentiation of certain populations. The demographic survey revealed a general decrease in the spatial distribution and abundance of P. toxostoma over the last three decades. We conclude that demo‐genetic approaches are essential for (1) identifying populations for which both evolutionary and ecological extinction risks are high; and (2) proposing conservation plans targeted toward these at risk populations, and accounting for the evolutionary history of populations. We suggest that demo‐genetic approaches should be the norm in conservation practices.     

Evidence for selective angling of introduced trout and their hybrids in a stocked brown trout population

Comparisons of the genetic composition of brown trout Salmo trutta captured by anglers and by electrofishing based on three diagnostic microsatellite loci provided strong evidence that angling is selective in a stocked brown trout population. At two sites, anglers caught significantly younger trout and proportionally more introduced hatchery trout and hybrids than were observed in electrofishing surveys. Selective angling, in combination with a small legal catch size, may have considerably eliminated introduced trout and hybrids before spawning at the study sites, and thus may have reduced the introgression of alien genes into the local gene pool. Angling can be an important factor influencing the genetic structure of fish populations and should be taken into account in studies of introgressive hybridization in stocked fish populations and their management. In this study, demographic consequences of stocking were not assessed. Thus, even though the genetic consequences of stocking may be minimal or largely reversible through angling, resource competition between native and introduced trout, until they reach legal catch size, is expected to have a negative effect on the productivity of the indigenous trout population.     

Ecological causes of morphological evolution in the three‐spined stickleback

The central assumption of evolutionary theory is that natural selection drives the adaptation of populations to local environmental conditions, resulting in the evolution of adaptive phenotypes. The three‐spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) displays remarkable phenotypic variation, offering an unusually tractable model for understanding the ecological mechanisms underpinning adaptive evolutionary change. Using populations on North Uist, Scotland we investigated the role of predation pressure and calcium limitation on the adaptive evolution of stickleback morphology and behavior. Dissolved calcium was a significant predictor of plate and spine morph, while predator abundance was not. Stickleback latency to emerge from a refuge varied with morph, with populations with highly reduced plates and spines and high predation risk less bold. Our findings support strong directional selection in three‐spined stickleback evolution, driven by multiple selective agents.